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Iyengar or Ayyangar (Template:IPA-te) are a community of Tamil Brahmins who follow the Visishtadvaita philosophy propounded by Sri Ramanujacharya. The Iyengar tradition originated with Ramanuja in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Following persecution from the Cholas, Ramanuja migrated to modern day Karnataka where he received royal patronage from the Hoysalas. Today, Iyengars are distributed all over Tamil Nadu with a majority of them residing along the Cauvery Delta, as well as in the states of Karnataka (Melkote, Mysore and Bengaluru) and Andhra Pradesh. Iyengars sport a namam (Thiruman+Srichurnam) as a caste-mark.

Etymology

There are various opinions regarding the etymology of Iyengar.

• It is derived from Ayya, a Prakrit version of the Sanskrit word Arya, along with the Telugu honorific plural suffix garu.
• It means one who is characterised by five attributes (Aindu angangal).

Robert Lester says that the word “Ayyangaar”, an alternate transliteration, was first used by Kandhaadai Ramanuja Ayyangaar of Tirupathi around 1450 AD.

History

The Iyengar community started taking shape about 1000 years ago, and traces its philosophical origins to Nathamuni, a Sri Vaishnava Acharya, who lived around 900 CE. Nathamuni, who was exposed to the divine outpourings of Nammazhwar and other Azhwars (Sri Vaishnava Saints from Southern India) introduced the philosophy of Azhwars into temple worship. Nathamuni's efforts were formalised into a religious system of lifestyle, practice and worship by Ramanuja who propounded the philosophy of Visishtadvaita.

Language and dialect

The mother tongue of most Iyengars in Tamil Nadu is Tamil. However, they speak a unique Iyengar dialect often called Vaishnava Paribhaashai. This dialect is almost identical with the Iyer dialect known as Brahmin Tamil, the difference being only in the level of Sanskritization. Scholars have often refused to recognise it as a separate dialect regarding it only as a sub-dialect of Brahmin Tamil. Iyengars in Karnataka speak a dialect that has a significant Kannada substrate, which has descended from medieval Tamil.

Subsects

Iyengars are divided into two sects, being the Vadakalai and the Thenkalai. They emerged following a split amongst followers of Ramanuja, a few years after Ramanuja passed on; due to theological disputes resulting in a sectarian schism. The dispute, centered on whether moksha involves human effort or divine grace in effecting the highest goal, led to the Thenkalai appealing to Gitabhasya 18.66, and the Vadakalai to the Gadyatraya. The Vadakalais gave importance to the Sanskrit lore and were centered in Kanchipuram while the Thenkalai gave importance to the Tamil lore of Divyaprabandhams and were centered in Srirangam. Robert Lester sums up the division as follows:

"..Less than 150 years after Ramanuja's death his followers split into two well-defined groups: Tengalai ("Southern") and Vadagalai ("Northern"). The split had practical as well as theological bases, but it centered on the question of human effort versus divine grace in effecting the highest goal. Both of these schools of thought affirm bhagavadprapatti ("resorting to the Lord") to be the supreme means to moksa, the Tengalai defining prapatti as mere receptivity or lack of opposition to divine grace, the Vadagalai insisting that prapatti must involve a positive act on the part of one desirous of moksa before divine grace can effect such an end. The latter school, defined by Vedanta Desika, makes prapatti a six-member (shadanga) ritual act involving the recitation of certain mantras. Both schools claim Ramanuja as the central authority for such affirmations, the Tengalai appealing to Gitabhasya 18.66 and the Vadagalai to the Gadyatraya..."

Vadakalai Iyengar

Vedanta Desika, the Vaishnavite Acharya and philosopher, founded the Vadakalai sampradaya based on the Sanskritic tradition.

The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay (1917), Volume 24, p.109, which traces the life of Sri Varadacharya, developments though which Vadagalai identified with Sanskritic lore and Thengalai with prabandhic lore, the distinct cleavage that came to take place between these two in the 14th and 15th centuries; states the following:

"From these facts it will be understood that the terms Vadagalai and Tengalai are both linguistic and geographical in origin. Linguistically they mean the followers of the Sanskrit and Tamil lores, and geographically the followers of the Conjeeveram and Srirangam Schools. Varadacharya's Acharyaship was thus a most momentous epoch in the history of Vaishnavism.....As a matter of fact, Vedantacharya never asserted any such thing, - he never pitted the north against the south. The terms Vadagalai and Tengalai refer to the relative importance attached to Sanskrit (northern lore) and Tamil (southern lore) and not to any doctrines of North India as distinct from South India. There is indeed a geographical significance in these terms ; but the North refers to Conjeevaram and South to Srirangam at first, later on Alvar Tirunagari further south,-and not to North and South Indias."

A study on Rh(D) occurrence in 1980, amongst samples from members of Mala, Yerukula, Kapu and Vadagalai Iyengar in Andhra revealed that the incidence of Rhesus(D) was higher in Vadagalai Iyengars than the other 3 groups; with a similar high frequency of Rhesus(D) genes also found in people of Faislabad in the Punjab province of Pakistan.

Thenkalai Iyengar

The Thenkalai Iyengar sect which was led by Manavala Mamuni, follow the Tamil Prabhandams and reject the caste system. The Thenkalai sect was founded by Pillailokacharya, while Manavala Mamuni is considered the sect's most important and famous leader. The Thenkalai society has also accepted a significant proportion of the non-Brahmin population into its fold. The Thenkalai sect seems to be liberal in its outlook, and so shapes the doctrine of the system as to make them applicable to non-Brahmin castes.

Differences in philosophy

Iyengars are classified into Vadakalai, or "Northerners", and Thenkalai, or "Southerners".

The Vadakalais, who trace their philosophical origins to Vedanta Desika, follow the Sanskrit Vedas, and believe that human effort is a contributory factor to liberation, as is Divine grace. The Thenkalais, who trace their origins to Pillai Lokacharya as well as Manavala Mamunigal, assert primacy to Tamil and the prabhandams, and maintain that liberation comes primarily through grace.

Edgar Thurston summarises the points of dissension between Vadagalai and Thengalai Iyengars thus:

1. Whether Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu, is (Vibhu) co-omnipresent and co-illimitable with Vishnu;
2. Whether Lakshmi is only the mediatrix for, or the co-bestower of moksham or final beatitude;
3. Whether there is any graduated moksham attainable by the good and blessed, according to their multifarious merits;
4. Whether prapatti, or unconditional surrender of the soul to God, should be performed once for all, or after every act of spiritual rebellion;
5. Whether it (prapatti) is open to all, or is prescribed only for those specially prepared and apprenticed;
6. Whether the indivisibly atomic human soul is entered into, and permeated or not by the omnipresent creator;
7. Whether God's mercy is exerted with or without cause;
8. Whether the same (the divine mercy) means the overlooking (dhosha darsanam) or enjoyment (dhosha bogyatvam) of the soul's delinquencies;
9. Whether works (karma) and knowledge (Jnana) are in themselves salvation giving, or only lead to faith (bhakthi) by which final emancipation is attained;
10. Whether the good of other (unregenerate) castes should be tolerated according to their graduated social statuses, or should be venerated without reference to caste inequalities;

The principal difference between both sects lie in their belief relating to the theory of surrender to God. Vadakalai Iyengars believe that it is necessary to offer obeisance/prostration to God multiple times, while Thenkalai Iyengars believe that it is enough if you offer obesaiance/prostration to God once. This is the reason as to why a Vadakalai Iyengar is often seen prostrating four times, while Thenkalai Iyengars are seen prostrating only once. This aspect of difference in prostration reflects the subtle variation of faith. These are called markata kishora and marjara kishora in Sanskrit, referring to litter of monkey and cat. The Vadagalai sect rely on the fact that young one of a monkey always hugs its mother, otherwise the mother would not carry it. This explains the fact that one must always cling on to God to seek his blessings. On the contrary, the Thengalai sect rely on the fact that young one of a cat never hugs its mother, as the mother always would carry it. According to them, this explains the fact that it is enough if one cling on to God once to seek his blessings as the duty to protect you becomes his burden.

Regional Subsects

Hebbar

The Hebbars speak a unique dialect of Tamil called Hebbar Tamil. In earlier years confined to the towns of Belur, Shanti Grama, Nuggehalli, Nonavinakere, Bindiganavile in the Tumkur district, and Hiremagalur (all in Karnataka), Hebbar Iyengars are now found in many parts of India, across Europe, and North America. It is believed that Hebbars are the descendants of Srivaishnavas who migrated to Karnataka from Tamil Nadu, in the train of the Vaishnavite acharya Ramanuja.

Mandyam

Mandyam Iyengars are those who migrated to Mandya district in Karnataka from Tirupathi in Andhra Pradesh. They are fewer in number than Hebbars and speak a unique dialect of Tamil known as Mandyam Tamil. Mandyam Iyengars, without exception, belong to the Thenkalai subsect.

The Iyengars of Melkote (Khoday Iyengars) are known for their proficency in Sanskrit literature. The head of the Khoday Iyengars clan was Sri Shelvapellai Iyengar and now under the charge of Khoday Narayana Iyegnar. In South-Indian languages, Khoday means "Umbrella". This epithet got tagged as their ancestors had the honour of holding an umbrella over Lord Yoga Narashimha, idol on the occasion of Melakote Vairamudi, in the pressence of the then Maharaja of Mysore. Most of the Mandyam sect, do not celebrate Deepawali due to the lore that Tippu Sultan massacred hundreds of relatives of the Tirumaliyengar, in retaliation for his having entered into an agreement with the British in 1790, on behalf of the dowager queen Rani Lakshammanni of Mysore.

Chozhiar Iyengars

The word Chozhiar means “of the Chola”. Chozhiar is the name given to a sect of Brahmins native to the Chola region. While most Chozhiars profess Saivism, some profess Vaishnavism and are known as Chozhiar Iyengars. They usually bear titles as ‘Dikshitar’’’ or ‘Nambi’’’.

Philosophy

Iyengars accept Narayana / Vishnu as the Supreme Being (Paramatma), and subscribe to a monotheistic philosophy of a Supreme Being who is the primal, substantive and supportive cause of the manifest and unmanifest universe. But it will appear strange for a Southerner to know that Vishishtadvaitam as practised in South India is an unheard term among the Vaishnav Sects in the North India. They also recognise all other gods such as Brahma, Indra, Shiva and Agni in the Hindu pantheon as subservient to Narayana and amongst the jeevatmas (sentient souls, chit) whose existence is dependent upon the will of the Supreme Being.

Religious observances

Rituals

Rituals that mark important events in life, such as Seemantham, Jatakarma, Namakaranam, Vidyabhyasam, Upanayanam, Kalyanam, Shasthiabdhapoorthi and Tarpanam are practised by Iyengars. The rituals are generally similar to practices of Brahmins around India but bear great similarity to the practices of Iyers. The knot in the sacred thread worn by Vaishnavites is known as Vishnu Grandhi as opposed to those worn by Smarthas which is known as Rudra Grandhi.

Samasrayanam

Amongst all Srivaishnavas, there is a unique initiation ceremony into the Vaishnavite Brahmin brotherhood along with the Upanayanam. The Vasihnavite youngster is initiated into Iyengar fraternity by branding him with the Chakram(wheel) and the sanghu(conch), which are holy symbols associated with Lord Vishnu. The ceremony of initiation called Samashrayanam is usually carried out by the head of a Vaishnavite mutt.

Weddings

A typical Iyengar wedding are made up of the following events: Vethalaipakku, Pandalkal, Janwaasam, Nischayathartham, Nandi or Vratham, Kashiyathrai, Oonjal, Piddishuttal, Kanyadaanam, Mangalaya Dharanam, Akshathai, Homam, Saptapadi, Nagoli, Vasthra, Gruhapravesham, Sambandhi Virandhu, Reception and Nalangu.

Important festivals

Iyengars, as Srivaishnavas, observe festivals such as Pongal(referred to as Makara Sankranti by Vadakalais), Rama Navami, Krishna Janmashtami, Dussehra or Navaratri, Deepavali and Vaikunta Ekadashi. It is common among orthodox Iyengars to observe fasts during certain months of the Tamizh calendar, as also yearly pujas during the month of Margazhi.

Lifestyle and culture

The first and foremost point of references for Iyengars with regard to their legal system is the Manusmriti. The Manusmriti prescribes a set of ethical vales to be practised. Iyengars follow the set of values prescribed by the Manusmriti. Among adult males, it is common to observe nithyakarma – the daily ablutions, obesiances to the Sun, Sandhyavandanam and pranayama (a form of Yoga). Adult females observe days of rest during their menstrual cycle and do not cook or observe rituals during these days. Adult females do not perform the same rituals as adult males although they generally take part in the same rituals and nithyakarmas. The nithyakarmas form the basic structure of the Brahmanical lifestyle for Iyengars.

The traditional dress of Iyengars is the same as that of other South Indian Brahmins. During religious ceremonies, Iyengar men clothe themselves in a panchagacham(a cotton or silk clothing with five folds) and an angavastram. Just like Iyers, Iyengar women wear a nine-yard long saree known as the madisar but the style of wearing the saree is different from that of the Iyers.

Iyengars sport the Sricharanam as opposed to Iyers who apply vibhuti. The significance of the Sricharanam is that it represents the Goddess Lakshmi, the divine consort of Lord Vishnu and is considered an important representative of one's faith in the Divine. It is typical for devout Iyengars to wear the Sricharanam (along with, in many cases, the Thirumann) at all times, except when they perform the morning duties and subsequently the ablutions prescribed as part of the Nitya karma or daily activities. Iyengar women usually wear a tilakam and a sindooram at traditional ceremonies. A married Iyengar woman, called a Sumangali', is expected to wear a mangalyam – referred to in Tamizh thali which indicates her marital status.

Politics

Post-independence, Iyengars, along with Iyers, have been marginalised by the anti-Brahmin Movement in Tamil Nadu. Prior to independence, Iyengars along with Iyers, held a monopoly over education and had a firm control over the administrative machinery in Madras province. The first Congress Chief Minister of Madras province, the first Indian Governor-General of India and a leading luminary of the freedom movement, Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari, were all Iyengars.

Criticism

See Also: Criticism of Iyers, Brahminism, Anti-Brahminism, Caste-Based Reservations in Tamil Nadu

It was found that prior to Independence, the Pallars were never allowed to enter the residential areas of the caste Hindus particularly of the Brahmins. Whenever a Brahmin came out of his house, no Scheduled Caste person was expected to come in his vicinity as it would pollute his sanctity and if it happened by mistake, he would go back home cursing the latter. He would come out once again only after taking a bath and making sure that no such thing would be repeated. However, as a mark of protest a few Pallars of this village deliberately used to appear before the Brahmin again and again. By doing so the Pallars forced the Brahmin to get back home once again to take a bath drawing water from deep well.

Grievances and alleged instances of discrimination by Brahmins are believed to be the main factors which fuelled the Dravidian Movement. This, in combination with the depressed economic and social conditions of non-Brahmins, led the non-Brahmins to agitate and form the Justice Party in 1916, which later became the Dravidar Kazhagam. The Justice Party banked on vehement anti-Hindu and anti-Brahmin propaganda to ease Brahmins out of their privileged positions. Gradually, the non-Brahmin replaced the Brahmin in every sphere and destroyed the monopoly over education and the administrative services which the Brahmin had previously held.

However, with the destruction of Brahmin monopoly over the services and introduction of adequate representation for other communities, anti-Brahmin feelings did not subside. There were frequent allegations of casteism and racism against Brahmins very similar to the ones made by the lower castes against them in the decades before independence.

Some Iyengars have worked to remove caste-barriers. Sir P. Rajagopalachari, during his tenure as the Dewan of Travancore, introduced legislation to give Dalit and Ezhava children access to schools, despite protests from Malayali upper-castes. He also enabled the lifting of restrictions on the nomination of low-castes and untouchables to the Travancore State Assembly. Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, during his tenure as the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency, enacted a law similar to the Temple Entry Proclamation issued in Travancore that permitted the entry of Dalits into Hindu temples.

There were also accusations that they were Sanskritists who had a distorted and contemptuous attitude towards Tamil language, culture and civilisation

However, a detailed study of the history of Tamil literature proves this accusation wrong. The renowned Dravidologist Kamil Zvelebil notes that the Brahmin was chosen as a scapegoat to answer for the decline of Tamil civilisation and culture in the medieval and post-medieval periods.

Notable people

See also

• Iyer
• Forward Castes
• Vishishtadvaita
• Divya Desam

Notes

1. G. S. Ghurye, Pg 393
2. "The Iyengar Surname". Ancestry.com. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
3. Aiyaṅgār, Maṇḍayam A. Nārāyaṇa (1898). Essays on Indo-Aryan Mythology.
4. Lester, Robert C. (1 January 1994). "The Sattada Srivaisnavas". The Journal of the American Oriental Society.
5. "''A brief description of Nalayira divya prabandham''". Srivaishnavam.com. 26 February 1997. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
6. Venkatesh K. Elayavalli. "A brief biography of Sri Nathamuni, from". srivaishnava.org. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
7. Tamil language – information, news about Tamil & Tamilnadu
8. Gough, Kathleen. Rural Society in Southeast India. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 25. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
9. T. V. Kuppuswamy (Prof.), Shripad Dattatraya Kulkarni (1966). History of Tamilakam. Darkness at horizon. Shri Bhagavan Vedavyasa Itihasa Samshodhana Mandira. p. 166.
10. ^ Robert C Lester (1966). Rāmānuja and Śrī-Vaiṣṇavism: The Concept of Prapatti or Śaraṇāgati. History of Religions, Volume 5, Number 2, pp.266-282
11. ^ Patricia Y Mumme (1988). The Srivaisnava theological dispute : Manavalamamuni and Vedanta Desika, pp.1-24. New Era Publications
12. ^ Asiatic Society of Bombay (1917). Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay, Volume 24, p.109
13. "Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
14. ^ Pg.283 The changing Indian civilization:a perspective on India, by Oroon K. Ghosh, Minerva Associates (Publications). Google Books. 15 March 2007. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
15. Pg.121 Journal of South Asian literature, Volumes 23–24, Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University. Google Books. 3 October 2008. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
16. Pg.40 Sri Ramanuja, Melukote, and Srivaishnavism; Ke.Es Nārāyaṇācārya, Kautilya Institute of National Studies, Mysore. Google Books. 12 June 2009. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
17. Hameed, Amjad; Hussain, Wajahat (2002). "Prevalence of Phenotypes and Genes of ABO and Rhesus (Rh) Blood Groups in Faisalabad, Pakistan" (PDF). Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences. 5 (6). Asian Network for Scientific Information: 722–724. Retrieved 17 February 2012. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
18. ^ Tamil Nadu, Religious Condition under Vijaya Nagar Empire
19. Pg.86 Encyclopaedia of Indian philosophy, Volume 1, by Vraj Kumar Pandey, Anmol Publications. Google Books. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
20. Pg.108 Homage to a Historian:a festschrift – by N. Subrahmanian, Tamilanpan, S.Jeyapragasam, Dr. N. Subrahmanian 60th Birthday Celebration Committee, in association with Koodal Publishers. Google Books. 13 July 2006. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
21. The World of the Weaver in Northern Coromandel, c.1750-c.1850 – by P.Swarnalatha, Pub’ by Orient Longman, ISBN 81-250-2868-4. Google Books. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
22. Pg.443 – ''The Indian economic and social history review, Volume 22'', Delhi School of Economics. Google Books. 19 December 2009. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
23. Pg.61- ''Textiles and weavers in medieval South India'', by Vijaya Ramaswamy, Oxford University Press. Google Books. 7 January 2010. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
24. Pg.58 The Orissal historical research journal, Volumes 42–43, by Kedarnath Mahapatra, Orissa (India). Superintendent, Research and Museum, Orissa State Museum. Google Books. 2 September 2008. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
25. Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Pg 334
26. ^ Pg.128 Studies in social history: modern India, O. P. Bhatnagar, India. University Grants Commission, University of Allahabad. Dept. of Modern Indian History, St. Paul's Press Training School – 1964. Google Books. 20 March 2007. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
27. Pg.245 Impact of Śrī Rāmānujāçārya on temple worship, Nag Publishers – 1994. Google Books. 22 June 2009. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
28. Pg.184 Census of India, 1951, Volume 14, Part 1; India. Census Commissioner, Govt. of India Press – 1954
29. Pg.502 & 503, The Mysore tribes and castes, Volume 2, L. Krishna Anantha Krishna Iyer (Diwan Bahadur), Hebbalalu Velpanuru Nanjundayya (diwan bahadur), University of Mysore; Pub. under the auspices of the Mysore university, 1935
30. Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Pg 350
31. "Soil and soul connect with Sanskrit at Melkote". Goodnewsindia.com. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
32. ^ Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Pg 352
33. "''Holy thread, why should I wear it? What benefit do I get out of it?'' by T.R.S.Iyengar". Trsiyengar.com. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
34. "Requirements for an Iyengar ''Upanayanam'' by T.R.S.Iyengar (in Tamil)". Trsiyengar.com. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
35. "Tarpana Manthram (in English)". Trsiyengar.com. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
36. Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Pg 277
37. ^ Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Pg 349
38. Ritual ceremonies and customs, Tamil Iyengar wedding
39. Gariyali, C. K. (11 March 2002). "Iyengar Marriage Part 1". Chennai Online. Retrieved 2008-09-04.
40. Gariyali, C. K. (16 April 2002). "Iyengar Marriage Rituals – Part Four". Chennai Online. Retrieved 2008-09-04.
43. "''Superiority in Numbers'' from ''Tehelka.com'', April 22, 2006". Tehelka.com. 22 April 2006. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
44. Caste and the Tamil Nation by Nambi Arroran, from tamilnation.org
45. "A brief biography of Rajaji". Ceeby.com. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
46. A. Ramiah. "Untouchability in villages". Untouchability and Inter Caste Relations in Rural India: The Case of Southern Tamil villages. tamilnation.org. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
47. Caste in Indian Politics by Rajni Kothari, Pg 254
48. Warrier, Shobha (30 May 2006). "'Education is the means of social mobility'". Rediff News. Archived from the original on 4 May 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
49. Ayyankali, Chapter 4:Kerala's First Workers Strike
50. Ayyankali, Chapter 8:Praja Sabha Member-2e
51. P.V.Manickam Naicker, writes in 'The Tamil Alphabet and its Mystic Aspect', 1917,Pg 74–75: "Even should Dutt's description of the aryanisation be true, the real Aryan corpus in South-India came to nothing. A cranial study of the various classes will also confirm the same. The lecturer, being a non-Brahmin, wishes to leave nothing to be misunderstood. His best and tried friends are mostly Brahmins and he is a sincere admirer of them. There is no denying the fact that the ancestors of the present Brahmins were the most cultured among the South-Indians at the time the said Aryanisation took place and got crystallized into a class revered by the people. As the cultured sons of the common mother Tamil, is it not their legitimate duty to own their kinsmen and to cooperate and uplift their less lucky brethren, if they have real patriotism for the welfare of the state? On the contrary, the general disposition of many a Brahmin is to disown his kinship with the rest of the Tamil brethern, to disown his very mother Tamil and to comstruct an imaginary untainted Aryan pedigree as if the Aryan alone is heaven-born
52. Zvelebil, Pg 197
53. Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature,Pg 216
54. Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature,Pg 212
55. Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature,Pg 213

References

• Ghurye, G. S. (1991). Caste and Race in India. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. ISBN 0-8364-1837-9.
• Thurston, Edgar (1909). Castes and Tribes of Southern India Volume I – A and B. Madras: Government Press. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• W. Clothey, Fred (2006). Ritualizing on the Boundaries: Continuity and Innovation in the Tamil Diaspora. University of South Carolina. ISBN 1-57003-647-0, ISBN 978-1-57003-647-7. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). The Smile of Murugan on Tamil Literature of South India. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-03591-5.
• V. Zvelebil, Kamil (1992). Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-09365-6. {{cite book}}: More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help)
• Aiyangar, S. Krishnaswami (1919). Some Contributions of South India to Indian Culture. University of Calcutta. ISBN 81-206-0999-9.
• E. V. Ramasami (27 March 1929). "Is this Nationalism?" (PDF). The Revolt.
• W. B. Vasantha Kandasamy, F. Smarandache, K. Kandasamy, Florentin Smarandache (1 December 2005). E. V. Ramasami's Writings and Speeches. American Research Press. ISBN 978-1-931233-00-2. Retrieved 2008-08-13. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Ghosh, G. K. (2003). Brahmin Women. Firma KLM. ISBN 81-7102-107-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |isbn-status= ignored (help)
• Slater, Gilbert (1924). The Dravidian Element in Indian Culture. Ernest Benn.
• Iyengar, P.T. Srinivasa (1929). History of the Tamils from the Earliest Times to 600AD. Asian Educational Services.

Further reading

• K. Rangachari (1931). The Sri Vaishnava Brahmins.

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