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	*The F-15 was the alternate form of a few characters (chiefly the three ]s ], ], and ]), from the original ] cartoon/comic series.<ref>Transformers Volume 1, Issue 2, Marvel Comics Group, November 1985.</ref>		*The F-15 was the alternate form of a few characters (chiefly the three ] Seeker jets ], ], and ]), from the original ] cartoon/comic series.<ref>Transformers Volume 1, Issue 2, Marvel Comics Group, November 1985.</ref>
	*The F-15 was the subject of the ] movie '']'', about the ]s.		*The F-15 was the subject of the ] movie '']'', about the ]s.
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Revision as of 00:58, 13 November 2007

"F-15" redirects here. For other uses, see F15.

Template:Infobox Aircraft

The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F-15 Eagle is an all-weather tactical fighter designed to gain and maintain air superiority in aerial combat. It was developed for the U.S. Air Force, and first flew in July 1972. The F-15E Strike Eagle derivative is an all-weather strike fighter that entered service in 1989. The U.S. Air Force plans to keep the F-15 in service until 2025.

Development

Origins

During the mid-1960s the U.S. Air Force intelligence was shocked to find that the Soviet Union was building a large fighter aircraft, known as the MiG-25 "Foxbat". It was not known in the West at the time that the MiG-25 was designed as a high-speed interceptor, not an air superiority fighter; as such, its primary asset was speed, not maneuverability. The MiG-25's huge tailplanes and fins hinted at a very maneuverable aircraft, which worried the Air Force that its performance might be higher than its American counterparts. In reality, the MiG's large stabilizer and stabilators were necessary to prevent the aircraft from encountering inertia coupling in high-speed, high-altitude flight.

The F-4 Phantom II of the USAF and U.S. Navy was the only fighter with enough power, range and maneuverability to be given the primary task of dealing with the threat of Soviet fighters while flying with visual engagement rules. As a matter of policy, the Phantoms could not engage targets without positive visual identification, so they could not engage targets at long ranges as designed. Medium-range AIM-7 Sparrow missiles, and to a lesser degree even the AIM-9 Sidewinder, were often unreliable and ineffective at close ranges where it was found that guns were often the only effective weapon.

The Phantom did not originally have a gun, as it was intended that only missiles would be used to engage slowly moving and maneuvering Warsaw Pact bombers and fighters at longer ranges. Experience in Vietnam showed this not to be the case and led to the addition of a gun. At first an external gun pod was tried but that proved inaccurate and increased drag. Later the 20 mm M61 Vulcan, was integrated internally on the F-4E.

F-X program

There was a clear need for a new fighter that overcame the close-range limitation of the Phantom while retaining long-range air superiority. After rejecting the U.S. Navy VFX program (which led to the F-14 Tomcat) as being unsuited to its needs, the U.S. Air Force issued its own requirements for the Fighter Experimental (F-X), a specification for a relatively lightweight air superiority fighter. Four companies submitted proposals, with the Air Force eliminating General Dynamics and selecting Fairchild Republic, North American Rockwell, and McDonnell Douglas for the definition phase in December 1968. The companies submitted technical proposals by June 1969. The Air Force announced the selection of McDonnell Douglas on 23 December 1969. The winning design resembled the twin-tailed F-14, but with fixed wings. It would not be significantly lighter or smaller than the F-4 that it would replace.

The Eagle's initial versions were designated F-15A for the single-seat configuration and F-15B for the twin-seat. These versions would be powered by new Pratt & Whitney F100 engines to achieve a combat thrust-to-weight ratio in excess of 1 to 1. A proposed 25 mm Ford-Philco GAU-7 cannon with caseless ammunition was dropped in favor of the standard M61 Vulcan gun due to development problems. The F-15 retained conformal carriage of four Sparrow missiles like the Phantom. The fixed wing was put onto a flat, wide fuselage that also provided an effective lifting surface. Some questioned if the zoom performance of the F-15 with Sparrow missiles was enough to deal with the new threat of the high-flying MiG-25 "Foxbat"; its capability would eventually be demonstrated in combat.

The first F-15A flight was made in July 1972, and the first flight of the two-seat F-15B (formerly TF-15A) was made in July 1973.

The F-15 has a "look-down/shoot-down" radar that can distinguish low-flying moving targets from ground clutter. The F-15 would use computer technology with new controls and displays to lower pilot workload and require only one pilot to save weight. Unlike the F-14 or F-4, the F-15 has only a single canopy frame with clear vision forward. The USAF introduced the F-15 as "the first dedicated USAF air superiority fighter since the F-86 Sabre."

The F-15 would be favored by customers such as the Israel Air Force and Japan Air Self-Defense Force, and the development of the F-15E Strike Eagle would produce a strike fighter that would replace the F-111. However, criticism from the fighter mafia that the F-15 was too large to be a dedicated dogfighter, and too expensive to procure in large numbers to replace the F-4 and A-7, led to the Light Weight Fighter (LWF) program, which led to the USAF F-16 Fighting Falcon and the middle-weight Navy F/A-18 Hornet.

The single-seat F-15C and two-seat F-15D models entered production in 1979 with the models' first flights in February and June of that year. These new models have Production Eagle Package (PEP 2000) improvements, including 2,000 lb (900 kg) of additional internal fuel, provision for carrying exterior conformal fuel tanks and increased maximum takeoff weight of up to 68,000 lb (30,700 kg).

Design

The F-15's maneuverability is derived from low wing loading (weight to wing area ratio) with a high thrust-to-weight ratio enabling the aircraft to turn tightly without losing airspeed. The F-15 can climb to 30,000 feet (10,000 m) in around 60 seconds. The thrust output of the dual engines is greater than the aircraft's weight, thus giving it the ability to accelerate in a vertical climb. The weapons and flight control systems are designed so that one person can safely and effectively perform air-to-air combat.

A multi-mission avionics system includes a head-up display (HUD), advanced radar, inertial guidance system (INS), flight instruments, ultra high frequency (UHF) communications, and Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) and Instrument Landing System (ILS) receivers. It also has an internally mounted, tactical electronic-warfare system, "identification friend or foe" system, electronic countermeasures suite and a central digital computer.

The heads-up display projects, through a combiner, all essential flight information gathered by the integrated avionics system. This display, visible in any light condition, provides the pilot information necessary to track and destroy an enemy aircraft without having to look down at cockpit instruments.

The F-15's versatile APG-63/70 Pulse-Doppler radar system can look up at high-flying targets and down at low-flying targets without being confused by ground clutter. It can detect and track aircraft and small high-speed targets at distances beyond visual range (the maximum being 120 nautical miles (220&nbs;km)away) down to close range, and at altitudes down to treetop level. The radar feeds target information into the central computer for effective weapons delivery. The capability of locking onto targets as far as 50 nautical miles (90 km) with an AIM-120 AMRAAM enables true beyond visual range (BVR) engagement of targets. For close-in dogfights, the radar automatically acquires enemy aircraft, and this information is projected on the head-up display. The F-15's electronic warfare system provides both threat warning and automatic countermeasures against selected threats.

A variety of air-to-air weaponry can be carried by the F-15. An automated weapon system enables the pilot to perform aerial combat safely and effectively, using the head-up display and the avionics and weapons controls located on the engine throttles or control stick. When the pilot changes from one weapon system to another, visual guidance for the required weapon automatically appears on the head-up display.

The Eagle can be armed with combinations of four different air-to-air weapons: AIM-7F/M Sparrow missiles or AIM-120 AMRAAM advanced medium range air-to-air missiles on its lower fuselage corners, AIM-9L/M Sidewinder or AIM-120 missiles on two pylons under the wings, and an internal M61A-1 20 mm Gatling gun in the right wing root.

Low-drag conformal fuel tanks (CFTs) were developed for the F-15C and D models. They can be attached to the sides of the engine air intake trunks under each wing and are designed to the same load factors and airspeed limits as the basic aircraft. However, they degrade performance by increasing drag and cannot be jettisoned in-flight (unlike conventional external tanks). Each conformal fuel tank can hold 750 U.S. gallons (2,840 L) of fuel. These tanks increase range thus reducing the need for in-flight refueling. All external stations for munitions remain available with the tanks in use. Moreover, Sparrow or AMRAAM missiles can be attached to the corners of the conformal fuel tanks. The U.S. Air Force only fits CFTs to its F-15Es, but American CFTs were provided to Israel which utilizes them (as needed) on their entire fleet.

The F-15E Strike Eagle is a two-seat, dual-role, totally integrated fighter for all-weather, air-to-air and deep interdiction missions. The rear cockpit is upgraded to include four multi-purpose CRT displays for aircraft systems and weapons management. The digital, triple-redundant Lear Siegler flight control system permits coupled automatic terrain following, enhanced by a ring-laser gyro inertial navigation system. For low-altitude, high-speed penetration and precision attack on tactical targets at night or in adverse weather, the F-15E carries a high-resolution APG-70 radar and LANTIRN pods to provide thermal imagery.

The APG-63(V)2 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar has been retrofitted into a limited number of U.S. Air Force F-15C aircraft. This upgrade includes most of the new hardware from the APG-63(V)1, but adds an AESA to provide increased pilot situational awareness. The AESA radar has an exceptionally agile beam, providing nearly instantaneous track updates and enhanced multi-target tracking capability. The APG-63(V)2 is compatible with current F-15C weapon loads and enables pilots to take full advantage of AIM-120 AMRAAM capabilities, simultaneously guiding multiple missiles to several targets widely spaced in azimuth, elevation, or range.

Operational history

The largest operator of the F-15 is the United States Air Force. The first Eagle (F-15B) was delivered 14 November 1974. In January 1976, the first Eagle destined for a combat squadron, the 555th TFS, was delivered. These initial aircraft carried the Hughes Aircraft (now Raytheon) APG-63 radar.

The F-15 Multistage Improvement Program was initiated in February 1983, with the first production MSIP F-15C produced in 1985. Improvements included an upgraded central computer; a Programmable Armament Control Set, allowing for advanced versions of the AIM-7, AIM-9, and AIM-120A missiles; and an expanded Tactical Electronic Warfare System that provides improvements to the ALR-56C radar warning receiver and ALQ-135 countermeasure set. The final 43 included the enhanced-capability Hughes APG-70 radar, which was carried forward into the F-15E. The earlier MSIP F-15Cs with the APG-63 were later upgraded to the APG-63(V)1, which significantly improves reliability and maintainability while providing performance similar to the APG-70.

The first kill in an F-15 was by IAF ace Moshe Melnik in 1979. In 1979–81 during Israeli-Lebanese border disputes, F-15As downed 13 Syrian MiG-21 "Fishbeds" and two Syrian MiG-25 "Foxbats", the latter being the aircraft the F-15 was designed to kill. F-15A and B models were used by Israel during the Bekaa Valley operation. During the 1982 Lebanon War, the Israeli F-15s shot down 40 Syrian jet fighters (23 MiG-21 "Fishbeds" and 17 MiG-23 "Floggers") and one Syrian SA.342L Gazelle helicopter.

Royal Saudi Air Force F-15C pilots shot down two F-4E Phantom IIs flown by the Iranian Air Force in a border skirmish in June 1984, and shot down two Iraqi Mirage F1s during the Gulf War.

The USAF deployed F-15C, D, and E models to the Persian Gulf in 1991 in support of Operation Desert Storm where they accounted for 36 of the 39 Air Force air-to-air victories. F-15Es were operated mainly at night, hunting SCUD missile launchers and artillery sites using the LANTIRN system.

According to the USAF, its F-15Cs had 34 confirmed kills of Iraqi aircraft during the 1991 Gulf War, mostly by missile fire: five MiG-29 "Fulcrums," two MiG-25 "Foxbats," eight MiG-23 "Floggers," two MiG-21 "Fishbeds," two Su-25 "Frogfoots", four Su-22 "Fitters", one Su-7, six Mirage F1s, one Il-76 cargo plane, one Pilatus PC-9 trainer, and two Mi-8 helicopters. After air superiority was achieved in the first three days of the conflict, many of the later kills were reportedly of Iraqi aircraft fleeing to Iran, rather than actively trying to engage US planes. The single-seat F-15C was used for air superiority, and the F-15E was heavily used in air-to-ground attacks. An F-15E achieved an aerial kill of another Iraqi Mi-8 helicopter using a laser-guided bomb during the air war. The F-15E sustained two losses to ground fire in the Gulf War in 1991.

They have since been deployed to support Operation Southern Watch, the patrolling of the No-Fly Zone in Southern Iraq; Operation Provide Comfort in Turkey; in support of NATO operations in Bosnia, and recent air expeditionary force deployments.

In 1994, two US Army UH-60 Black Hawks were downed by USAF F-15Cs in the Northern no-fly zone of Iraq in a friendly fire incident.

USAF F-15Cs shot down four Yugoslav MiG-29s using AIM-120 missiles during NATO's 1999 intervention in Kosovo, Operation Allied Force.

As of 2005, the F-15 in all air forces has an air-to-air combined kill record of 103 kills to 0 losses in air combat. The U.S. and Israel maintain that to date, the air superiority versions of the F-15 (A/B/C/D models) have never been shot down by an enemy. Over half of the F-15's kills were made by Israeli Air Force pilots.

Satellite killer

From January 1984 to September 1986, an F-15A was used as a launch platform for five ASM-135 anti-satellite (ASAT) missiles. The F-15A went into a Mach 1.22, 3.8 g climb of 65° and released the ASAT missile at an altitude of 38,100 feet (11.6 km). The F-15A computer was updated to control the zoom-climb and missile release. The third test flight involved a retired communications satellite in a 345 statute mile (555 km) orbit, which was successfully destroyed by sheer kinetic energy. The pilot, USAF Major Wilbert D. "Doug" Pearson, became the only pilot to destroy a satellite.

The ASAT missile was designed to be a standoff anti-satellite weapon, with the F-15A acting as a first stage. The Soviet Union could interpret a US rocket launch with a spy satellite loss, but an F-15 carrying an ASAT would blend in among hundreds of F-15 flights.

Future

The F-15C/D model is being supplanted in US service by the F-22 Raptor. The F-15E however will remain in service for years to come because of its different air-to-ground role and the low number of hours on their airframes.

On 26 September 2006, at the Air Force Association's Air & Space Conference and Technology Exposition in Washington D.C., the USAF announced their plan to upgrade 178 F-15C fighters with the AN/APG-63(V)3 AESA radar. Additionally, the Air Force also plans to upgrade other F-15s with the JHMCS. The Air Force will keep these 178 F-15Cs as well as the 224 F-15Es in service beyond 2025.

In keeping with that plan, the Air Force then contracted with Boeing to retrofit F-15Cs with the AN/APG-63(V)2 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radars and first delivery of the new radar sets to the Air Force are expected in early 2009. These retrofitted airplanes are expected to remain in service with the USAF well past 2020.

Variants

A Royal Saudi Air Force F-15 approaches a KC-135 for refueling during Operation Desert Shield.

Basic models

F-15A: Single-seat all-weather air-superiority fighter version.
F-15B: Two-seat training version, formerly designated TF-15A.
F-15C: Improved single-seat all-weather air-superiority fighter version.
F-15D: Two-seat training version.
F-15J: Single-seat all-weather air-superiority fighter version for the Japan Air Self-Defense Force built under licence in Japan by Mitsubishi.
F-15DJ: Two-seat training version for the Japan Air Self-Defence Force. Built under licence in Japan by Mitsubishi.
F-15N Seagle: Proposed carrier-capable variant; considered for F-14 Tomcat replacement in the US Navy.

F-15E and related

A view of an F-15E cockpit from an aerial refueling tanker.

Main article: F-15E Strike Eagle

F-15E Strike Eagle: Two-seat all-weather long-range strike and ground-attack aircraft for the US Air Force.
F-15F Strike Eagle: Proposed single seat model of the F-15E.
F-15H Strike Eagle: Export model of the F-15E Strike Eagle for Hellenic Air Force.
F-15I Ra'am (Thunder): Advanced version of the F-15E Strike Eagle for the Israeli Air Force.
F-15K Slam Eagle: Advanced version of the F-15E Strike Eagle for the Republic of Korea Air Force.
F-15S Strike Eagle: Export version of the F-15E Strike Eagle for the Royal Saudi Air Force.
F-15SG Strike Eagle: Advanced version of the F-15E Strike Eagle for the Republic of Singapore Air Force. Variant was formerly designated F-15T.

Research and test

File:Ifcs22.jpg

NASA F-15 IFCS in flight.

F-15 Streak Eagle: One stripped and unpainted F-15A, demonstrated the fighter's acceleration – broke eight time-to-climb world records between January 16 and February 1 1975 .
F-15S/MTD: One TF-15A was converted into a short take-off and landing, maneuver technology demonstrator aircraft.
F-15 ACTIVE: One F-15S/MTD was converted into an advanced control technology research aircraft.
F-15 IFCS: One F-15 ACTIVE was converted into an intelligent flight control systems research aircraft.
F-15 MANX: A tailless variant of the F-15 ACTIVE.

Operators

Incidents

On 1 May 1983, during an Israeli Air Force training dogfight, an F-15D collided with an A-4 Skyhawk. Unknown to pilot Zivi Nadavi, and his copilot, the right wing of the Eagle was torn off roughly two feet (60 cm) from the fuselage. The pilot managed to regain control of the aircraft and prevented it from stalling, ultimately landing the crippled aircraft successfully. The F-15 was able to stay in the air because of the lift generated by the large horizontal surface area of the fuselage, the large and effective elevators and the surviving wing. Landing at twice the normal speed to maintain the necessary lift, although the tailhook was torn off completely during the landing, Zivi managed to bring his F-15 to a complete stop approximately 20 feet (6 m) from the end of the runway. He was later quoted that "(I) probably would have ejected if I knew what had happened."

On 2 November 2007, an F-15C crashed during a training operation in Missouri. The pilot ejected safely. The crash is initially believed to have been the result of an inflight breakup due to structural failure. On 3 November 2007, all non-mission critical models of the F-15 were grounded pending the outcome of the crash investigation. The following day, the grounding was extended to include non-mission critical F-15s currently engaged in combat missions in the Middle East.

Specifications (F-15C Eagle)

Data from USAF fact sheet, Jane's All the World's Aircraft, Davies

General characteristics

Crew: 1
Airfoil: NACA 64A006.6 root, NACA 64A203 tip

Performance

Thrust/weight: 1.12 (-220), 1.30 (-229)

Armament

Guns: 1× internally mounted 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A1 gatling gun, 940 rounds
Hardpoints: 4 wing, 4 fuselage, 2 wing stations, centerline station, optional fuselage pylons with a capacity of 16,000 lb (7,300 kg)
Missiles:

Avionics

Radar:
- Raytheon AN/APG-63 or AN/APG-70 or
- Raytheon AN/APG-63(V)2 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA)
Countermeasures:
- AN/APX-76 or AN/APX-119 IFF interrogator
- AN/ALQ-128 radar warning suite
- AN/ALR-56 radar warning receiver
- ALQ-135 internal countermeasures system
- AN/ALE-45 chaff/flare dispensers

Popular culture

The F-15 was the alternate form of a few characters (chiefly the three Decepticon Seeker jets Starscream, Thundercracker, and Skywarp), from the original Transformers cartoon/comic series.
The F-15 was the subject of the IMAX movie Fighter Pilot: Operation Red Flag, about the RED FLAG exercises.

References

Notes

Making the Best of the Fighter Force, Air Force magazine, March 2007.
"In July 1967 at the Domodedovo airfield near Moscow, the Soviet Union unveiled a new generation of combat aircraft.. condenamed Foxbat by NATO.": Development in Modern Fighting Aircraft, 1983
^ Davies 2002, p. 9-11.
Bowman 1980, p. 193.
Jenkins 1998, p. 5-9.
^ Eden and Moeng 2002, p. 944.
Jenkins 1998, p. 9-11.
Spick 2000, p. 130-131.
RAND report, "Return of the Air Superiority Fighter."
Jenkins 1998, p. 33-34.
^ Green and Swanborough 1998, p. 371.
Gunston 1986, p. 194.
Huenecke 1987, p. 227-230.
^ Jenkins 1998, p. 97-104.
Huenecke 1987, p. 232-236.
^ Lambert 1993, p. 521.
Jenkins 1998, p. 111.
Lambert 1993, p. 523.
^ Scutts 1989, p. 47.
"An Eagle evolves", Boeing, January 2004.
Pushing the Saudis Too Far
2 Iranian Fighters Reported Downed by Saudi Air Force
F-15 in Saudi Service
US Air Force Historical Research Agency.
Patrolling Iraq's Northern Skies.
US Air Force Historical Research Agency.
F-15 In Service on vectorsite.net
Excluding the case of a Japanese F-15J that shot down another F-15J in 1995 due to an AIM-9 Sidewinder safety malfunction. F-15J page on globalsecurity.org
"Biographies: Major General Wilbert D. "Doug" Pearson Jr". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
The F-15 ASAT story
Air Force Will Get New Bomber, Upgrades To Fighters, Spacewar.com, 5 October 2006.
Making the Best of the Fighter Force, Air Force magazine, March 2007.
"Boeing Awarded $70 Million Contract for Enhanced F-15C Radar", Boeing, 9 October 2007.
Gething 1983
"Lockheed Martin to Upgrade Radar for Reconnaissance Version of Japan's F-15", Lockheed Martin press release, June 19, 2007.
^ "USAF fact sheets: F-15 Eagle". Retrieved 2006-12-04.
"NO WING F15 - CREW STORIES - USS BENNINGTON". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
"F-15 flying with one wing by an Israeli pilot".
Air Force suspends some F-15 operations, US Air Force, 4 November 2007.
Air Force grounds F-15s in Afghanistan after Missouri crash, CNN, 5 November 2007.
Lambert 1993, p. 522.
Davies, Appendix 1
Transformers Volume 1, Issue 2, Marvel Comics Group, November 1985.

Bibliography

Bowman, Martin W. US Military Aircraft. London: Bison Books Ltd., 1980. ISBN 0-89009-292-3.
Braybrook, Roy. F-15 Eagle. London: Osprey Aerospace, 1991. ISBN 1-85532-149-1.
Crickmore, Paul. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle (Classic Warplanes series). New York: Smithmark Books, 1992. ISBN 0-8317-1408-5.
Davies, Steve. Combat Legend, F-15 Eagle and Strike Eagle. London: Airlife Publishing, Ltd., 2002. ISBN 1-84037-377-6.
Drendel, Lou. Eagle (Modern Military Aircraft Series). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1985. ISBN 0-89747-168-1
Drendel, Lou and Carson, Don. F-15 Eagle in action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1976. ISBN 0-89747-023-0.
Eden, Paul and Moeng, Soph, eds. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. London: Amber Books Ltd., 2002. ISBN 0-7607-3432-1.
Fitzsimons, Bernard. Modern Fighting Aircraft, F-15 Eagle. London: Salamander Books Ltd., 1983. ISBN 0-86101-182-1.
Gething, Michael J. F-15 Eagle (Modern Fighting Aircraft). New York: Arco, 1983. ISBN 0-66805-902-8.
Gething, Michael J. and Crickmore, Paul. F-15 (Combat Aircraft series). New York: Crescent Books, 1992. ISBN 0-517-06734-X.
Green, William and Swanborough, Gordon. The Complete Book of Fighters. New York: Barnes & Noble Inc., 1988. ISBN 0-07607-0904-1.
Gunston, Bill. American Warplanes. New York: Crescent Books. 1986. ISBN 0-517-61351-4.
Huenecke, Klaus. Modern Combat Aircraft Design. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1987. ISBN 0-87021-426-8.
Jenkins, Dennis R. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Supreme Heavy-Weight Fighter. Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1998. ISBN 1-85780-081-8.
Kinzey, Bert. The F-15 Eagle in Detail & Scale (Part 1, Series II). El Paso, Texas: Detail & Scale, Inc., 1978. ISBN 0816850283.
Lambert, Mark, ed. Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1993-94. Alexandria, Virginia: Jane's Information Group Inc., 1993. ISBN 0-7106-1066-1.
Scutts, Jerry. Supersonic Aircraft of USAF. New York: Mallard Press, 1989. ISBN 0-792-450-13-2.
Spick, Mike. The Great Book of Modern Warplanes. MBI, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4.

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