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The history of the Illyrians covers an era between the late 3rd millenium BC until their last appearance in the historical record in the 7th century AD. Located in the western Balkans in the era prior to 2000 BC, the Illyrians settled several neighbouring areas including Italy during the Iron Age

The Iron Age around 1200 BC was the time of formation of the Illyrian cultural community in the entire area known as such in historic times. The start of the Iron Age also marks the start of Liburnian supremacy over the Adriatic and Ionian and the founding of strings of colonies along the eastern Italian shores. In the 8th century BC Illyrian States are founded in southern Illyria. Urbanization among the Illlyrians begins in the 7th century BC while trade with the Greek world intensifies. From the 5th century BC onwards the Illlyrians experience their golden age which starts with the building of cities, organized and sophisticated armies and figurative art among the northern Illyrians and Iapyges. In the 4th century BC the Illyrians States hold formidable power in the Balkans threatening many of its neighbors such as Ancient Macedonia and also experience Greek influence to an extent. The Romans eventually overcome the Illyrians through numerous wars from the 3rd century BC onwards until 9 AD, when all of Illyria was incorporated into the Roman Empire.

Illyrians give rise two many Roman emperors such as Constantine the Great. During the 7th century AD the Illyrians last appear in the historical records. After many invasions from the Slavs the northern Illyrians become absorbed into the Slavic States while the Albanians possibly represent an instance of southern Illyrian continuity.

Mythological foundations

In Greek mythology, Illyrius was the son of Cadmus and Harmonia who eventually ruled Illyria and became the eponymous ancestor of the whole Illyrian people. Illyrius had multiple sons (Encheleus, Autarieus, Dardanus, Maedus, Taulas and Perrhabeus) and daughters (Partho, Daortho, Dassaro and others). From these, sprang the Taulantii, Parthini, Dardani, Enchelaeae, Autariates, Dassaretae and the Daors. Autareius had a son Pannonius or Paeon and these had sons Scordiscus and Triballus. A later version of it is having as parents Polyphemus and Galatea that give birth to Celtus, Galas, and Illyrius. The second myth could stem perhaps from the similarities to Celts and Gauls.

Origins

There are many theories on the origins of Illyrians, however there are two main ones, the latter being more accepted. All these theories however agree that Illyrians or Proto-Illyrians have their origins at the end of the 3rd millennium BC around 2100 BC. The first theory is that the Illyrian culture is formed on earlier cultures in the western Balkans. Archaeologists Josip Koroseci, France Stare and Alojz Benac after excavating archaeological materials from the oldest layers of the Bronze Age and those from the newest layers of Illyrian sites, came to the conclusion that there existed no such cultural interruption. From this there was a continuity between the bearers of the Bronze Age cultures and the Iron Age cultures in the Balkans. Proof of this theory is the form of Illyrian pottery which can be linked immediately to the forms of pottery produced in the Bronze Age. Intensive archeological work has been carried out in Albania, which according to Albanian archaeologists, Illyrians originate from the Bronze Age, more accurately around 2100 BC. This theory has been receiving more and more support in the last years.

The second theory conducted by Bosnian archaeologist, Alojz Benac in 1964 does not change from the first and is very similar but Benac's theory in the class of todays archeological science is more accurate. This theory states that the earliest cultures of the Balkans were later transformed into the Illyrian culture. This happened at a time of massive migrations in the Balkans from the far east. The culture in Gllasinac is not yet fully Illyrian but has all the elements of Illyrians.

Bronze Age (2100-1200BC)

Much of the earliest Illyrian history is blurred with a lack of written sources. However archaeological work on the earliest Illyrian sites creates a more detailed picture. Some of the earliset Illyrian sites and settlements include Maliq in Albania and Glasinac in Bosnia. These two sites are among the largest and most productive of all early Illyrian sites. Some of them were even settled before the 3rd millennium BC predating Illyrian origins. The dirtibution of the proto-Illyrians was more broader. The early Illyrians inhabited parts of Greece and Asia Minor before the Iron Age.

• The early Bronze Age (2100-1800 BC) marked the beginning of the process of of the Illyrian ethnos, a process that would continue during the entire Bronze Age with the liguistic and cultural integration of tribes that had a common origin, as well as the assimilation of other ethnic entities. The migratory waves from Eurasia caused the process to accelerate because it broke up the existing closed tribal structures, especially because of the dynamic population movements brought by livestock raising.
• During the middle Bronze Age (1800-1500BC), there is an increase among the different regions. Different sites and cultures around the western Balkans show detailed similarities, the most dominated being the Mat-Glasinac group. The early Illyrians had good trading links with both the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations of the Aegean. Since at least the middle Mycenaean period (1800-1500 BC), Illyrians had contacts with them. The contacts included pottery and articles of bronze and are shown by the presence of Illyrian objects in the early Greek sanctuaries of the geometric period. Imports included cups of the 'kefitu' type and swords, daggers and spear head of Cretan production found in many southern tumulus. The use of these objects by southern Illyrians shows that, in addition to having stabilized relations over a quite broad area, they adopted several Cretan-Mycenaean social life and their manner of warfare. The Italian peninsula was also a place where Illyrian held trade with which began at the same time as with the Aegean world.
• During the late Bronze Age (1500-1200 BC) the Illyrians interest in metals is increased. This is seen in the production of many types of weapons and work tools. The first specimens produced were similar to Mycenaean types. The pottery of this period is characterized by the selection of forms inherited from the middle Bronze Age, which were preferred over quite a large area. The differences are seen primarily in the techniques of baking and decoration. In the southern regions, red clay colors predominate, produced by an oxidation process through intense baking. In the north, the pottery was of dark colors, as a result of reductive baking. From the end of the Bronze Age, the south east regions, of which the most representative settlement remains Maliq, were distinguished for the decoration of vessels with the geometric motifs realized on a polished base with a brwon matte color.

  

  This kind of pottery is known as Devollite pottery. Early Illyrian settlements and fortifications are almost always found on hilltops and had an area ranging from less than acre up to 20 hectares. In small fortifications the area that was enclosed served for keeping livestock while the residence were outside. Larger fortifications were characterized by having severla concentric circle of wall, by the use of border mounds and by having a round area encircled by a wall, before the entrance. The features are common all over the Western Balkans such as the fortifications in the Glasinac plateau and and even as far as the Liburna. The use of new metal came peacefully to the proto-Illyrians unlike in Greece.

The contemporaneous appearance of pottery known as 'Turbandish' has been interpreted as evidence of the arrival in Illyrian territory of waves of so called Aegean invaders, who started from the Danube. These Doran migrations did not interfere in the development of the ethnogenesis of the Illyrians. Relations with the Aegean See were not interrupted but intensified. The Illyrians also became more active in relations with the Greek world through the visits of Illyrian seafarers to Hellenic sanctuaries, which are testified to by gifts of typical objects.

Iron Age (1200BC-450BC)

The Iron Age around 1000 BC was the period of formation of the Illyrian cultural community in the the entire area of Illyria. It is not possible to speak of complete unity in all aspect of material and spiritual culture. A large number of Illyrian tribes with their specific features acan be distinguished, differing in the techniques of working and decorating pottery, the burial practices, their clothing and in other ways. They can be classified into three large cultural and geographic units. The first, enctred in the firld of Korça covers the Illyrian territories south of the Shkumbin river (southern Illyrians), while the second extends to the Neretva river, with two centres in the Mat valley and the Glasinac plateau. The third includes the lands of the Liburnians, Japodes and Istrians (northern Illyrians). Illyrian pottery at this time uses geometric designs.

• 12th-10th century BC - Start of Illyrian migrations to Italy. The Illyrians migrations were movements of proto-Illyrian populations across the Adriatic to the southern Italian coast. These migrations commenced from the 14th century BC but are not evident until turn of the millennium. Evidence for such migrations are archeological artifacts showing similarities on both Adriatic coasts. Other evidence comes from later Greek authors and from the Messapian language which is a dialect of the Illyrian language. The Illyrians who inhabited southern Italy were known as the Iapyges which comprimised of three tribes: Messapians, Dauni and the Peucetii. The Illyrians settled the heel of Italy, the regions of Apulia and Calabria The founded may cities and towns and became one of the most advanced Illyrians, being the only Illyrians to write their language down. The Illyrians played an over whelming part in the formation of prehistoric cultures in Italy.

  

• 9th century BC - The Liburnians, a northern Illyrian people begin the Liburnian Thalassocracy. From the 9th century BC there was certain koine, a cultural unity in the Adriatic, with the general Liburninan seal, whose naval supremacy meant both political and economical authority through a several centuries. Some similar toponyms attested not only Liburnian but also other Illyrian migrations to the central and south Italy, respectively Apulia and Picenum. Liburnian hold supreme power over the Adriatic with their swift warships, the Liburna. They begin to found colonies on the eastern and southern Italian coasts holding intensive trading links with Italic peoples especially in Picenum.
• 8th century BC - In the first half of the 8th century BC the Liburnians expand southwards into the Ionian making Corfu their most southern outpost. In 735 BC they abandon the island under pressure from Corinthian colonists, making this the first recorded conflict between Illyrians and Greeks. However their position in the Adriatic is still strong. The first of the Illyrian States are founded, that of the Enchelei and the Taulanti. The Enchelei build the city of Lychnidos and their capital Enchelean. Daunians construct their elaborate funerary monuments called Daunian stele. Earliest depictions of Illyrian ships on Glasinac bronze greaves.
• 7th century BC - Greek colonists start to colonize cities on the Illyrian. Taulanti call the Corinthians for help to expell the Liburnians in 628 BC causing the Greeks to found a colony called Durrës. The use of greaves and Illyrian helmet becomes incorporated in Illyrian armies. Gaularos, the first recorded Taulanti ruler attacks Macedonia. Spectacular Iapygian pottery is made with human figures and elaborate designs.

  

• 6th century BC - Start of Illyrian city building and urabization under Greek influence especially among the southern Illyrians. The Autariatae State is founded and it begins to expand eastwards and southwards, displacing the Thracian Triballi. Liburnians lose supremacy in the western Adriatic coast due to invasions of the Umbri and the Gauls, obviously caused by strengthening and expansion of the Etruscan union in the 6th century BC, whose rich material presence in the basin of Po river, undoubtedly meant weakening of the Liburnian thalassocracy influence in the north-west of Adriatic. Imports from Greece are found in almost every major Illyrian grave. First recorded battle between Illyrians and Romans in 509 BC when the Peucetii siege Rome. Iagyges begin to be influenced by Magna Graeca. First Messapian inscriptions on over 300 sources using the Greek script. Trebenista culture in southern Illyria reaches its peak with the creation of gold objects.

Iron Age (450BC-9AD)

The second half of the Iron Age from the 5th century BC onwards see's a blossoming in Illyrian society. The first account of Illyrians is written by Herodotus, a Greek historian, during on of his trips into the interior of the Balkans between 455-452 BC. Coins are first minted and cities are built. One of the first of these cities is Amantia. Illyrian States become more powerful resulting in more wars between their neighbors. With the arrival of the Celts in northern Illyria, begins the eventual Celtization of many northern Illyrian tribes. Illyrian art is altered during this period with the production of figurative art forms. During the last centuries BC All of Illyria is taken over by the growing Roman Empire.

• 5th century BC - The Messapians in Italy and the Paeonians becmes the first Illyrians to mint coins around 500 BC. Trade wth the Greek colonies in still strong. Persians conquer the southern part of the Paeonian State. The Taulanti contribute to the start of the Peloponnesian War in 436 BC and from then on Illyrians become involved in Greek politics. The Iapygians reaations with the Greek colonists reptures resulting in the worst defeat inflicted on a Greek people. Illyrian art among the northern Illyrians develops into figurative art forms such as Illyrian Situla and Japodian burial urns. Start of Illyrian dynasties among the southern Illyrian States. The Paeonians gradually become Hellenized. Autariatae State reaches its peak of expansion and become the most powerful Illyrian state according to Strabo. Agriculture still remains a big part of Illyrian life.
• 4th century BC - switch of power to newly created Dardanian State. Bardyllis takes control of northern Macedonia and Epirus. Macedonia weakened as a result. The Gallic migrations weaken northern Illyrian tribes such as the Autariatae, reducing their power permanently. The second phase of Illyrian city building starts with the building of large and impressive cities such as Byllis and Damastion. City building techniques similar to those of Epirus are used. Second wave of Greek colonies founded along the middle Illyrian coast. Dardanians continue to over whelm Macedonia until 358 BC when Philip II of Macedon takes control of Upper Macedonia by killing Bardyllis aged 90. Newer more sophisticated war tactics used during Battle of Pelion. Alexander the Great subjects the Illyrian States at the Battle of Pelion. At the end of the century southern Illyria becomes liberated. Glaukias shelters the young Pyrrus from the Mollosians. Japodes begin gradual Celtization. Sources from 'Periplus' or 'Coastal Passage' give a detailed description of Illyria's coast. Iapyges conquered by the Romans. Daorson is built on the banks of the Neretva becoming a major trading centre for the Illyrian world.

  File:Bato-1.jpg

• 3rd century BC - The State of Ardiaei is created. Agron builds the largest force and navy that no other Illyrian king had achieved before. Agron conquers nearly all of the Greek colonies. Monunius becomes the first Illyrian king to mint coins on his behalf in 280 BC. Piratical actions are used during Teuta's expansion campaigns in northern Greece. Illyria's political, economic and cultural society reaches its zenith. Royal tombs of Selca e Poshtme near the city of Pelion are constructed to house Illyrian kings. Rome intervenes to protect its trading roots after they are broken by Teuta's pirate. Start of the First Illyrian War, Rome orders Teuta to change her actions and invade a small portion of southern Illyria. Second Illyrian War results in Illyrian defeat. Paeonian State becomes assimilated into Macedonia. Koinons start to mint their own coins. Start of the second Illyrian dynasty.
• 2nd century BC - Decline of Illyrian power and start of Roman campagins to subdue the northern Illyrians. Cat and mouse game develops between the Delmatae and the Romans until the Delmatian capital Delminium is destroyed by the Romans in 155 BC. Philip IV tries to destroy Dardania by substituting them with a barbaric German tribe from the north. Istrian Peninsula taken over by the Romans. Liburnian culture changed thoroughly under Hellenistic influence, although local specifics are retained, except extended import of Hellenistic and Italic pottery and other lesser influences, Liburnian cultural relations with other peoples were rather poor. Delmatia leaves the Ardiaei State. Gentius the last Illyrian king surrenders to the Romans in the city of Shkodër. Illyria is divided into Roman provinces but Dardania remains unconquered. Illyrians that supported the Romans were granted freedom.
• 1st century BC - Continual wars with the Dardanian State leads to Roman conquest. Dardania becomes included in the Provence of Illyricum. Via egnatia links trading routes with the Middle East. Northern Illyrians start the Great Illyrian Revolt in 6 AD which includes many tribes with a huge army. Rebellion ends in Roman victory in 9 AD. Last of Illyrian attempts for independence, while some of the defeated Illyrian communities are sold as slaves.

Roman Era (9AD-7th century AD)

Illyrians in the Roman Empire are known as Illyro-Romans. Illyrians are not much of an importance in the first centuries of the new millennium As a whole the Illyrian contribution to the Empire during the two centuries following their final conquest consisted mainly of military service, conscripted or voluntary, in the auxiliary regiments of the army, which after service brought the reward of Roman citizenship and in the imperial ships. Except for the Liburnians no existing Illyrian communities were organized into Roman cities before the Flavian era (AD 69-96). In the 3rd century AD Illyrians reach high levels of society becoming army commanders and emperors repelling invaders and reconstructing the Empire. Illyrians rose from humble, often rural, backgrounds, through service in the army. Some of the most powerful Illyrian emperors were Diocletian, Constantine I and Justinian I the last being from Byzantine. From Illyrian warfare the Romans adopted the Liburna warship and the sica a distinct Illyrian fighting sword.

The geographical makeup of Illyria changed slightly. The Romans organized the land into the Roman province of Illyricum which encompassed most of modern Croatia (Istria was part of the province of Italia). Illyricum was subsequently split into the provinces of Pannonia and Dalmatia in year 10. Pannonia was further split in two by Trajan between 102 and 107. Southern Illyria was incorporated into Epirus nova which was part of the province of Macedonia while Dardania became part of Moesia. The term "Illyricum" continued to be used to refer to the western Balkan peninsula, and in the mid-4th century AD, the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum was set up as one of four praetorian prefectures that the Roman Empire was divided into; it encompassed Pannonia, Noricum, Crete, and the whole Balkan peninsula except Thrace. The prefecture survived until the early 7th century. Roman traders build numerous towns such as Salona on the Dalmatian coast.

Illyrian culture was deeply absorbed in the more advanced Roman one. Illyrian engravings and figurative art was heavily developed with the arrival of the Romans. Human stone figures and tombstones became beautifully decorated while ornamental and geometric designs a favorite of the Illyrians, suffered decline. The northern Illyrians began to use coins as a means of exchange with the Roman world. Illyrians use the Roman language and script to write inscriptions. Eventually a period of Romanizations dawns on many Illyrian peoples, with more and more Illyrians accepting the Roman way of life. The Illyrians were converted to Christian in the first century AD, St. Paul himself writes that he preached in Illyricum.

The Illyrians were split into two parts when the Empire was divided into the eastern part and the western half. This was the start of unrest and barbaric invasions from the north. Under the Byzantine Empire, the Lombards and the Huns made an incursion from the north. After 476 AD the area was subject to Odoacer and then to Ostrogoth rulers beginning with Theodoric the Great. Justinian claimed the old province of Dalmatia to the Eastern Roman Empire in 535 AD. During the last centuries there was again a prefecture of Illyricum, which in the 7th century AD was overrun by the Slavic incursions and ultimately absorbed into the emerging Slavic states, the First Bulgarian Empire, the Serb Archonty and the Croat Duchy. The Illyrians last appear in the historical record in the 7th century AD.

Early Middle Ages (Koman culture)

In 1892, a French consul in Shkodër, A. Degrand discovered mysterious cemeteries in the village of Koman in northern Albania in a place called 'Castle of Dalmaca'. Hundreds of bronze and iron artifacts were unearthed in the first few years of the discovery. The carriers of this the Koman culture after many speculations were the Arbër, the Middle Age name for the ancestors of modern Albanians. The Koman culture dates from the early Middle Ages, after the fall of the Roman Empire. Ippen another archaeologist at the time pointed out the similarities of some of the objects to the decorations of the Arbër mountaineers of the region. Further archaeological work showed that the graveyard had been used for a long time by a sedentary population. The construction of the Koman graves with stone slabs in the form of a box or with a roof faithfully reproduced a type known in Illyrian settlements during the Late Antiquity, 4th to 6th centuries AD. This period gave rise to the east-west orientation of the graves, with the head facing west, a custom that was found among the Illyrians after the introduction of Christianity. A concentrated group of 11 graves with a north-south orientation, typical of pagan Illyrian period, was also found. The burial of several persons of the same family in the same grave was also a rite of Illyrian origin, with the bones of the persons who died first being collected and put at the feet of those who died later.

Finds in the graves of bronze objects from the Illyrian period, such as round buttons of the 7th-6th centuries BC r decorations of the 3rd-1st centuries BC, are particularly interesting. This graveyard was connected to the earliest phase of the Castle of Sarda, founded in the 8th-9th centuries AD. It proved that those who used it were the Arbër, early Albanians, direct descendants of the Illyrians of that territory. The very name Sarda, later transformed into Shurdhah was of Illyrian origin, as is testified by Stephen of Byzantine's citation of the city of Sardis. Early medieval Arbër/Koman culture has also been documented in in areas around Lake Scutari and in the Mat valley, in discrete burials placed on top of earlier Illyrian mound graves. Evidence on the distribution of the Koman culture have been found around Ohrid Lake and southern Albania around the area of Korça.

The Arbërs were mentioned for the first time as being allies of Byzantium in the decisive battle in Shën Koll near Durrës, on October 18, 1081 AD. It is possible that the Arbërs, Middle Age descendants of Albanians are the successors of Illyrians. The Albanian language which appears on its own branch in the Indo-European family tree, shows the most similarities with the extinct Illyrian languages. The National movement in Albania during the 20th century strenghted these ties.

Legacy

During the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the term "Illyrian" was used to describe Croats living within the territories of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Italy, Austria, Hungary and Serbia (and in other countries abroad). However, on the territory of Venetian Albania (possessions of the Republic of Venice on the territory of Montenegro) and further southward, that term has been used to designate Albanians. The term Illyrians was utilized in late medieval texts such as in Mazaris' Journey to Hades (a work written by Byzantine author Mazaris between January 1414 and October 1415). In Mazaris' case, the term was used to designate "Albanians" (i.e. Arvanites). The term was revived again during the Habsburg Monarchy, but it was designated towards South Slavs. When Napoleon conquered part of the South Slavic lands in the beginning of the 19th century, these areas were named after ancient Illyrian provinces. Under the influence of Romantic nationalism, a self-identified "Illyrian movement" (Template:Lang-hr) in the form of a Croatian national revival, opened a literary and journalistic campaign that was initiated by a group of young Croatian intellectuals during the years of 1835-1849. This movement, under the banner of Illlyrism, aimed to create a Croatian national establishment under Austro-Hungarian rule, through linguistic and ethnic unity among South Slavs. It was repressed by the Habsburg authorities after the failed Revolutions of 1848. The possible continuity between the Illyrian populations of the Western Balkans in antiquity and the Albanians has also played a significant role as a national myth in Albanian nationalism from the 19th century until the present day. For example, Ibrahim Rugova, the first president of UN-administered Kosovo introduced the "Flag of Dardania" on October 29, 2000, Dardania being the name for a Thraco-Illyrian region roughly coterminous with modern Kosovo.

References

1. ^ Frazee, Charles (1997). World History: Ancient and medieval times to A.D. 1500. Barron's Educational Series. p. 89. ISBN 0812097653.
2. ^ Schaefer, Richard T. (2008). Encyclopedia of race, ethnicity, and society. SAGE Publications. p. 130. ISBN 9781412926942. Retrieved 13 October 2010.
3. ^ Stipčević, Aleksandar (1977). The Illyrians: history and culture. Noyes Press. p. 27. ISBN 9780815550525. Retrieved 10 December 2010.
4. "Albania". London: Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2005-09-30.. According to alternative hypotheses the Albanians may be descendants of Thracians or more specifically Dacians; cf. Georgiev, Vladimir (1960). "Albanisch, Dakisch-Mysisch und Rumänisch". Linguistique balkanique. 2: 1–19., and Schramm, Gottfried (1994). Anfänge des albanischen Christentums: Die frühe Bekehrung der Bessen und ihre langen Folgen. Freiburg.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
5. Grimal & Maxwell-Hyslop 1996, p. 230 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrimalMaxwell-Hyslop1996 (help); Apollodorus & Hard 1999, p. 103 (Book III, 5.4) harvnb error: no target: CITEREFApollodorusHard1999 (help).
6. Wilkes 1995, p. 92.
7. Grimal & Maxwell-Hyslop 1996, p. 168 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrimalMaxwell-Hyslop1996 (help).
8. Aleksandar Stipčević - Illyrians, The Illyrian Art, The Illyrian Cult Symbols page 46-47
9. ^ The Illyrians to the Albanians by Neritan Ceka 2005, pg.40,59and42 ISBN 99943-672-2-6
10. Wilkes, John J. (1995). The Illyrians. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0631198075. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
11. M. Zaninović, Liburnia Militaris, Opusc. Archeol. 13, 43-67 (1988), UDK 904.930.2(497.13)>>65<<, pages 47,48
12. http://www.timediver.de/Albanien_Goldschatz_von_Vrap.html
13. http://mkorkuti.tripod.com/id10.html
14. "Hrvatska revija", br. 2/2007.
15. Mazaris 1975, pp. 76–79 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMazaris1975 (help).
16. Despalatovic 1975 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDespalatovic1975 (help).
17. "Kosovo (Province, Serbia) - Dardania (Flag of Uncertain Status)". Flags of the World. 2008-02-23. Retrieved 2008-08-14.

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