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Revision as of 15:04, 28 October 2010 view sourceLagoo sab (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users687 edits Enzyklopaedia Iranica = 100 yr old data; Pashtun = speaker of Pashto; UCLA = out dated data; no need to explain about Persian, this is Pashto language article← Previous edit Revision as of 15:20, 28 October 2010 view source Chartinael (talk | contribs)490 edits Undid revision 393436804 by Lagoo sab (talk) Not all ethnic pashtuns speak pashto. that's why there is differentiation between speaker poplNext edit →
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|nativename = <span style="font-size:1.4em;">{{lang|ps|پښتو}} </span> |nativename = <span style="font-size:1.4em;">{{lang|ps|پښتو}} </span>
|pronunciation = {{IPA-all|paʂˈto], , [paxˈto|}} |pronunciation = {{IPA-all|paʂˈto], , [paxˈto|}}
|familycolor = Indo-European ] |familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=]
|fam3=]
|fam4=]
|fam5=]
|script = ] |script = ]
|nation = {{AFG}}<br>{{PAK}} (] and ])</br> |nation = {{AFG}}<br>{{PAK}} (] and ])</br>
|states = ''']'''<br>''']'''<br>''']'''
|states = ''']''': {{smaller|''east, south, southwest, north and northwest''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/afghanistan_ethnoling_97.jpg |title=Ethnolinguistic Groups in Afghanistan|publisher=]|location=United States|accessdate=2010-09-27}}</ref>}};<br>''']''': {{smaller|''], ], northern ], and parts of ] region''}};<br>''']''': {{smaller|''small part in the northeastern section}};<br>{{smaller|''] around the world.''}}</br>
|region = ]-] |region = ]-]
|speakers = between 20<ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref> - 50 million<ref name=Ethnologue-global/>
|speakers = ''Approx.'' '''49,529,000''' <ref name=Ethnologue-global/>
|rank = ] |rank = ]
|agency = ] |agency = ]
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|ld1 = ] (generic) |ld1 = ] (generic)
}} }}
'''Pashto''' (]: {{lang|ps|پښتو}} - {{IPA-all|paʂˈto|}}; also ] ''Pakhto'', ''Pushto'', ''Pukhto'', ''Pashtu'', or ''Pushtu''), also known as '''Afghani'''<ref>], "Afghani," in ], Fourth Edition. Source location: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Afghani. Accessed: July 14, 2010.</ref>, is a member of the ] spoken primarily by the ] in ] and northwestern ], as well as by the ] across the ].<ref name="CAL"/> '''Pashto''' (]: {{lang|ps|پښتو}} - {{IPA-all|paʂˈto|}}; also ] ''Pakhto'', ''Pushto'', ''Pukhto'', ''Pashtu'', or ''Pushtu''), also known as '''Afghani'''<ref>], "Afghani," in ], Fourth Edition. Source location: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Afghani. Accessed: July 14, 2010.</ref>, is an ] spoken primarily by the ] in ] and northwestern ], as well as by the ] across the ].<ref name="CAL"/>


Pashto belongs to the ] branch of the ] ]. The number of Pashto speakers is estimated to be nearly 50 million ].<ref name=Ethnologue-global>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pbu|title=Pashto, Northern|work=]|quote=''Ethnic population: 49,529,000 possibly total Pashto in all countries.''|publisher=]|date=June 2010|accessdate=2010-09-18}}</ref> The ] declares Pashto as one of the two ]s of the country, the other being ].<ref name="CAL">{{cite web |url=http://www.cal.org/co/afghan/alang.html |title=The Afghans - Language and Literacy |accessdate=2010-10-24|publisher=] (CAL)|location=United States|date=June 30, 2002}}</ref><ref name="AC">] - </ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Afghanistan: The land |last1=Banting |first1=Erinn |authorlink=|coauthors=|volume=|year=2003|publisher=Crabtree Publishing Company |location=|isbn=0778793354|page=4|pages=32|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KRt0HfYFZGsC&lpg=PP1&vq=place%20of%20Afghans&pg=PA4#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.afghan-web.com/facts.html |title=General Information About Afghanistan |work=Abdullah Qazi |publisher=Afghanistan Online |accessdate=2010-09-27}}</ref> Pashto belongs to the ] branch of the ] ]. The number of Pashtuns is estimated to be nearly 50 million ].<ref name=Ethnologue-global>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pbu|title=Pashto, Northern|work=]|quote=''Ethnic population: 49,529,000 possibly total Pashto in all countries.''|publisher=]|date=June 2010|accessdate=2010-09-18}}</ref> The ] declares Pashto as one of the two ]s of the country, the other being ].<ref name="CAL">{{cite web |url=http://www.cal.org/co/afghan/alang.html |title=The Afghans - Language and Literacy |accessdate=2010-10-24|publisher=] (CAL)|location=United States|date=June 30, 2002}}</ref><ref name="AC">] - </ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Afghanistan: The land |last1=Banting |first1=Erinn |authorlink=|coauthors=|volume=|year=2003|publisher=Crabtree Publishing Company |location=|isbn=0778793354|page=4|pages=32|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KRt0HfYFZGsC&lpg=PP1&vq=place%20of%20Afghans&pg=PA4#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.afghan-web.com/facts.html |title=General Information About Afghanistan |work=Abdullah Qazi |publisher=Afghanistan Online |accessdate=2010-09-27}}</ref>


==Geographic distribution== ==Geographic distribution==
In Afghanistan, Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south and southwest, but also in some northern and western parts of the country. The exact numbers of speakers are unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is the ] of 35-60%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2098.html?countryName=Afghanistan&countryCode=af&regionCode=sas&#af|title=Languages: Afghanistan|quote=''Afghan Persian or Dari (official) 50%, Pashto (official) 35%...''|work=]|publisher=]|accessdate=2010-09-18}}</ref><ref name="Ethnologue">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_language.asp?code=PBT|title=Pashto, Southern: a language of Afghanistan|quote=''...35% to 50% of the population (1996).''|work=SIL International|publisher=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|accessdate=2010-09-18}}</ref><ref name="Iranica-languages">{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranica.com/articles/afghanistan-v-languages|title=AFGHANISTAN v. Languages|work=Ch. M. Kieffer|quote=''A. Official languages. Paṧtō (1) is the native tongue of 50 to 55 percent of Afghans...''|publisher=] Online Version|accessdate=2010-10-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world|last1=Brown|first1=Keith|authorlink=|coauthors=Sarah Ogilvie|volume=|edition=|year=2009|publisher=Elsevie|quote=''Pashto, which is mainly spoken south of the mountain range of the Hindu Kush, is reportedly the mother tongue of 60% of the Afghan population.''|location=|isbn=0080877745, 9780080877747|page=845|pages=1283|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA845#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=2010-09-24}}</ref> of the total ]. In Afghanistan, Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south and southwest, but also in some northern and western parts of the country. The exact numbers of speakers are unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is the ] of 35-60%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2098.html?countryName=Afghanistan&countryCode=af&regionCode=sas&#af|title=Languages: Afghanistan|quote=''Afghan Persian or Dari (official) 50%, Pashto (official) 35%...''|work=]|publisher=]|accessdate=2010-09-18}}</ref><ref name="Ethnologue">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_language.asp?code=PBT|title=Pashto, Southern: a language of Afghanistan|quote=''...35% to 50% of the population (1996).''|work=SIL International|publisher=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|accessdate=2010-09-18}}</ref><ref name="Iranica-languages">{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranica.com/articles/afghanistan-v-languages|title=AFGHANISTAN v. Languages|work=Ch. M. Kieffer|quote=''A. Official languages. Paṧtō (1) is the native tongue of 50 to 55 percent of Afghans...''|publisher=] Online Version|accessdate=2010-10-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world|last1=Brown|first1=Keith|authorlink=|coauthors=Sarah Ogilvie|volume=|edition=|year=2009|publisher=Elsevie|quote=''Pashto, which is mainly spoken south of the mountain range of the Hindu Kush, is reportedly the mother tongue of 60% of the Afghan population.''|location=|isbn=0080877745, 9780080877747|page=845|pages=1283|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA845#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=2010-09-24}}</ref> of the total ].


Pashto is the ] of about 15.42%<ref></ref> of ]. It is the main language of ], ] (FATA) and northwestern ], but also spoken in parts of ] and ] districts of the ] as well as by Pashtuns who are found living in different cities throughout the country. Modern Pashto-speaking communities are also found in the cities of ] and ] in ]. With close to 7&nbsp;million ethnic ] by some estimates, Karachi has the largest Pashtun population in the world. Pashto is the ] of about 15.42%<ref></ref> of ]. It is the main language of ], ] (FATA) and northwestern ], but also spoken in parts of ] and ] districts of the ] as well as by Pashtuns who are found living in different cities throughout the country. Modern Pashto-speaking communities are also found in the cities of ] and ] in ].


Other communities of Pashto speakers are found in northeastern ], primarily in ] to the east of ], near the Afghan border<ref name="Ethnologue-Iran">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=iran |title=Languages of Iran|work=SIL International|publisher=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|accessdate=2010-09-27}}</ref>, and in ].<ref name="Ethnologue"/> There are also ] in the southwestern part of ] as well as in ], ].<ref>Walter R Lawrence, ''Imperial Gazetteer of India. Provincial Series'', pg 36-37, </ref><ref name="Khyber">{{cite web|url=http://www.khyber.org/articles/2007/StudyofthePathanCommunitiesinF.shtml|title=Study of the Pathan Communities in four States of India|publisher=Khyber.org|accessdate=2009-06-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://crulp.org/Publication%5CCrulp_report%5CCR03_15E.pdf|format=PDF|title=Phonemic Inventory of Pashto|publisher=CRULP|accessdate=2007-06-07}}</ref> Other communities of Pashto speakers are found in northeastern ], primarily in ] to the east of ], near the Afghan border<ref name="Ethnologue-Iran">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=iran |title=Languages of Iran|work=SIL International|publisher=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|accessdate=2010-09-27}}</ref>, and in ].<ref name="Ethnologue"/> There are also ] in the southwestern part of ] as well as in ], ].<ref>Walter R Lawrence, ''Imperial Gazetteer of India. Provincial Series'', pg 36-37, </ref><ref name="Khyber">{{cite web|url=http://www.khyber.org/articles/2007/StudyofthePathanCommunitiesinF.shtml|title=Study of the Pathan Communities in four States of India|publisher=Khyber.org|accessdate=2009-06-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://crulp.org/Publication%5CCrulp_report%5CCR03_15E.pdf|format=PDF|title=Phonemic Inventory of Pashto|publisher=CRULP|accessdate=2007-06-07}}</ref>
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==Official Status== ==Official Status==
Pashto and ] are the two ] of Afghanistan - a status held until the 1930s by Persian alone.<ref name="socioling">Modarresi, Yahya: ''Iran, Afghanistan and Tadjikistan". 1911 - 1916. In: Sociolinguistics, Vol. 3, Part. 3. Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill (eds.). Berlin, De Gryuter: 2006. p. 1915.</ref> In the 1930s, a movement began to take hold to promote Pashto as a language of government, administration and art<ref name="socioling" /> with the establishment of a Pashto Society in 1931 and the inauguration of the Kabul University in 1932 as well as the formation of the Pashto Academy ''Pashto Tolana'' in 1937.<ref name="hussain" /> In 1936, Pashto was granted the status of an official language<ref>Campbell, George L.: ''Concise compendium of the world's languages''. London: Routledge 1999.</ref> with full rights to usage in all aspects of government and education by royal decree despite the fact that the ethnically Pashtun rulers and bureaucrates spoke Persian at home and work.<ref name="hussain">Hussain, Rizwan. ''Pakistan and the emergence of Islamic militancy in Afghanistan''. Burlington, Ashgate: 2005. p. 63.</ref> The status of official language was reaffirmed in 1964 by the constitutional assembly when Afghan Persian was officially renamed to Dari.<ref>Dupree, Louis: ''Language and Politics in Afghanistan''. In: Contributions to Asian Studies. Vol. 11/1978. p. 131 - 141. E. J. Brill, Leiden 1978. p. 131.</ref><ref>Spooner, Bryan: "Are we teaching Persian?". In: Persian studies in North America: studies in honor of Mohammad Ali Jazayery. Mehdi Marashi (ed.). Bethesda, Iranbooks: 1994. p. 1983.</ref> In Pakistan, Pashto is the official language of ] (formerly North-West Frontier Province) and the ].{{Citation needed|reason=to confirm truth of statement|date=October 2010}}
⚫ Pashto enjoys ] in Afghanistan alongside ] (Afghan Persian). Pashto has also been designated as the ] of the nation.<ref name="CAL-2">{{cite web |url=http://www.cal.org/co/afghan/alang.html#2 |title=The Afghans - Language Use |accessdate=2010-10-24|publisher=Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL)|location=United States|date=June 30, 2002}}</ref>{{cquote|Pashto was designated a national language of Afghanistan by the Pashtuns in the various constitutions, and in the period of modernization, all non-Pashto-speaking government workers were required to learn the language. It was by no means a popular activity: those who took such Pashto classes allege that the Pashtun teachers made the language more difficult than it needed to be. Pashto was also required as a subject in elementary schools where the medium of instruction was Dari. The language served as a national symbol since it is primarily a language associated with Afghanistan, though around half its speakers live in Pakistan. Even so, Pashto has never had the status of Dari, which has a vast cultural and literary tradition.}}


⚫ Pashto has been designated as a ] of Afghanistan.<ref name="CAL-2">{{cite web |url=http://www.cal.org/co/afghan/alang.html#2 |title=The Afghans - Language Use |accessdate=2010-10-24|publisher=Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL)|location=United States|date=June 30, 2002}}</ref>{{cquote|Pashto was designated a national language of Afghanistan by the Pashtuns in the various constitutions, It was by no means a popular activity The language served as a national symbol , though around half its speakers live in Pakistan. Even so, Pashto has never had the status of Dari, which has a vast cultural and literary tradition.}}
In Pakistan, Pashto is the official language of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, and is also widely used in the Balochistan province.


==Grammar== ==Grammar==

Revision as of 15:20, 28 October 2010

Pashto
پښتو
Pronunciation[paʂˈto], , [paxˈto]
Native toAfghanistan
Pakistan
Iran
RegionSouth-Central Asia
Native speakersbetween 20 - 50 million
Language familyIndo-European
Writing systemPashto alphabet
Official status
Official language in Afghanistan
 Pakistan (K.P. and FATA)
Regulated byAcademy of Sciences of Afghanistan
Language codes
ISO 639-1ps
ISO 639-2pus
ISO 639-3
pus – Pashto (generic)

Pashto (Naskh: پښتو - [paʂˈto]; also transliterated Pakhto, Pushto, Pukhto, Pashtu, or Pushtu), also known as Afghani, is an Iranian language spoken primarily by the Pashtun people in Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan, as well as by the Pashtun diaspora across the globe.

Pashto belongs to the Eastern Iranian languages branch of the Indo-Iranian language family. The number of Pashtuns is estimated to be nearly 50 million people world wide. The Constitution of Afghanistan declares Pashto as one of the two official languages of the country, the other being Dari (Persian).

Geographic distribution

In Afghanistan, Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south and southwest, but also in some northern and western parts of the country. The exact numbers of speakers are unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is the mother tongue of 35-60% of the total population of Afghanistan.

Pashto is the first language of about 15.42% of Pakistan's 170 million people. It is the main language of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and northwestern Balochistan, but also spoken in parts of Mianwali and Attock districts of the Punjab province as well as by Pashtuns who are found living in different cities throughout the country. Modern Pashto-speaking communities are also found in the cities of Karachi and Hyderabad in Sindh.

Other communities of Pashto speakers are found in northeastern Iran, primarily in South Khorasan Province to the east of Qaen, near the Afghan border, and in Tajikistan. There are also Pashtun communities in the southwestern part of Jammu and Kashmir as well as in Uttar Pradesh, India.

Sizable Pashto-speaking communities also exist in the Middle East, especially in the United Arab Emirates , and Saudi Arabia, as well as in the United States, United Kingdom, Thailand, Canada, Germany, Netherland, Sweden, Qatar and Australia.

Official Status

Pashto and Dari Persian are the two official languages of Afghanistan - a status held until the 1930s by Persian alone. In the 1930s, a movement began to take hold to promote Pashto as a language of government, administration and art with the establishment of a Pashto Society in 1931 and the inauguration of the Kabul University in 1932 as well as the formation of the Pashto Academy Pashto Tolana in 1937. In 1936, Pashto was granted the status of an official language with full rights to usage in all aspects of government and education by royal decree despite the fact that the ethnically Pashtun rulers and bureaucrates spoke Persian at home and work. The status of official language was reaffirmed in 1964 by the constitutional assembly when Afghan Persian was officially renamed to Dari. In Pakistan, Pashto is the official language of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (formerly North-West Frontier Province) and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas.

Pashto has been designated as a national language of Afghanistan.

Pashto was designated a national language of Afghanistan by the Pashtuns in the various constitutions, It was by no means a popular activity The language served as a national symbol , though around half its speakers live in Pakistan. Even so, Pashto has never had the status of Dari, which has a vast cultural and literary tradition.

Grammar

Main article: Pashto grammar

Pashto is an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) language with split ergativity. Adjectives come before nouns. Nouns and adjectives are inflected for two genders (masc./fem.), two numbers (sing./plur.), and four cases (direct, oblique I, oblique II and vocative). The verb system is very intricate with the following tenses: present, simple past, past progressive, present perfect and past perfect. There is also an inflection for the subjunctive mood.In any of the past tenses (simple past, past progressive, present perfect and past perfect), Pashto is an ergative language; i.e., transitive verbs in any of the past tenses agree with the object of the sentence.

Phonology

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close i u
Mid e ə o
Open a ɑ

Pashto also has the diphthongs /ai/, /əi/, /ɑw/, /aw/.

Consonants

Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Post-
alveolar 		Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n ɳ
Plosive p b t̪ d̪ ʈ ɖ k ɡ q ʔ
Affricate t͡s d͡z t͡ʃ d͡ʒ
Fricative f s z ʂ ʐ ʃ ʒ ç ʝ x ɣ h
Approximant l j w
Rhotic r ɺ̢

The phonemes /q/, /f/ tend to be replaced by , .

The retroflex lateral flap /ɺ̢/ (//) is pronounced as retroflex approximant when final.

The retroflex fricatives /ʂ/, /ʐ/ that are preserved in southern dialects are replaced by palatal fricatives , in west-central dialects, velars , in northern dialects, and postalveolars , in southeastern dialects.

The velars /k/, /ɡ/, /x/, /ɣ/ followed by the close back rounded vowel /u/ assimilate into the labialized velars , , , .

Vocabulary

In Pashto, most of the native elements of the lexicon are related to other Eastern Iranian languages; those words can be easily compared to those known from Avestan, Ossetic and Pamir languages. However, a remarkably large number of words is special to Pashto. Post 7th century borrowings came primarily from Arabic, Persian and Hindustani language with the modern educated speech borrowing words from English French, and German language.

Writing system

Main article: Pashto alphabet

Pashto employs the Pashto alphabet, a modified form of the Persian alphabet which on its part is derived from the Arabic alphabet. It has extra letters for Pashto-specific sounds. Since the 17th century Pashto has been primarily written in the Naskh script, rather than the Nasta'liq script used for neighboring Persian and Urdu languages. The Pashto alphabet consists of 45 letters, and 4 diacritic marks. The following table gives the letters' isolated forms, along with IPA values for the letters' typical sounds:

ا
/ɑ, ʔ/		 ب
/b/		 پ
/p/		 ت
/t̪/		 ټ
/ʈ/		 ث
/s/		 ج
/d͡ʒ/		 ځ
/d͡z/		 چ
/t͡ʃ/		 څ
/t͡s/		 ح
/h/		 خ
/x/
د
/d̪/		 ډ
/ɖ/		 ﺫ
/z/		 ﺭ
/r/		 ړ
/ɺ̢, ɻ/		 ﺯ
/z/		 ژ
/ʒ/		 ږ
/ʐ, ʝ, ɡ/		 س
/s/		 ش
/ʃ/		 ښ
/ʂ, ç, x/
ص
/s/		 ض
/z/		 ط
/t̪/		 ظ
/z/		 ع
/ʔ/		 غ
/ɣ/		 ف
/f/		 ق
/q/		 ك / ک
/k/		 ګ
/ɡ/		 ل
/l/
م
/m/		 ن
/n/		 ڼ
/ɳ/		 و
/w, u, o/		 ه
/h, a, ə/		 ۀ
/ə/		 ي
/j, i/		 ې
/e/		 ى
/ai, j/		 ۍ
/əi/		 ئ
/əi/

Pashto is written from right to left.

Dialects

Main article: Pashto dialects

Pashto has two main dialects: a softer dialect spoken in the south, and a harder dialect in the north. It is dominated by the geographical spread of the shift in the pronunciation of these five consonants:

Southwest
Southeast
Northwest
Northeast

The morphological differences between the most extreme north-eastern and south-western dialects are comparatively few and unimportant, and the criteria of dialect differentiation in Pashto are primarily phonological.

See also

Notes and references

  1. UCLA Languages Project: Pashto
  2. Ethnologue
  3. Enzyklopaedia Iranica: Pashto
  4. ^ "Pashto, Northern". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. June 2010. Retrieved 2010-09-18. Ethnic population: 49,529,000 possibly total Pashto in all countries.
  5. Dictionary.com, "Afghani," in The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Source location: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Afghani. Accessed: July 14, 2010.
  6. ^ "The Afghans - Language and Literacy". United States: Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL). June 30, 2002. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
  7. Constitution of Afghanistan - Chapter 1 The State, Article 16 (Languages) and Article 20 (Anthem)
  8. Banting, Erinn (2003). Afghanistan: The land. Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 4. ISBN 0778793354. Retrieved 2010-08-22. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  9. "General Information About Afghanistan". Abdullah Qazi. Afghanistan Online. Retrieved 2010-09-27.
  10. "Languages: Afghanistan". Central Intelligence Agency. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2010-09-18. Afghan Persian or Dari (official) 50%, Pashto (official) 35%...
  11. ^ "Pashto, Southern: a language of Afghanistan". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Retrieved 2010-09-18. ...35% to 50% of the population (1996).
  12. "AFGHANISTAN v. Languages". Ch. M. Kieffer. Encyclopædia Iranica Online Version. Retrieved 2010-10-10. A. Official languages. Paṧtō (1) is the native tongue of 50 to 55 percent of Afghans...
  13. Brown, Keith (2009). Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. Elsevie. p. 845. ISBN 0080877745, 9780080877747. Retrieved 2010-09-24. Pashto, which is mainly spoken south of the mountain range of the Hindu Kush, is reportedly the mother tongue of 60% of the Afghan population. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. Government of Pakistan: Population by Mother Tongue
  15. "Languages of Iran". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Retrieved 2010-09-27.
  16. Walter R Lawrence, Imperial Gazetteer of India. Provincial Series, pg 36-37, Link
  17. "Study of the Pathan Communities in four States of India". Khyber.org. Retrieved 2009-06-07.
  18. "Phonemic Inventory of Pashto" (PDF). CRULP. Retrieved 2007-06-07.
  19. ^ "Languages of United Arab Emirates". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Retrieved 2010-09-27. Cite error: The named reference "Ethnologue-UAE" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  20. ^ Modarresi, Yahya: Iran, Afghanistan and Tadjikistan". 1911 - 1916. In: Sociolinguistics, Vol. 3, Part. 3. Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill (eds.). Berlin, De Gryuter: 2006. p. 1915.
  21. ^ Hussain, Rizwan. Pakistan and the emergence of Islamic militancy in Afghanistan. Burlington, Ashgate: 2005. p. 63.
  22. Campbell, George L.: Concise compendium of the world's languages. London: Routledge 1999.
  23. Dupree, Louis: Language and Politics in Afghanistan. In: Contributions to Asian Studies. Vol. 11/1978. p. 131 - 141. E. J. Brill, Leiden 1978. p. 131.
  24. Spooner, Bryan: "Are we teaching Persian?". In: Persian studies in North America: studies in honor of Mohammad Ali Jazayery. Mehdi Marashi (ed.). Bethesda, Iranbooks: 1994. p. 1983.
  25. "The Afghans - Language Use". United States: Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL). June 30, 2002. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
  26. Emeneau, M. B. (1962) "Bilingualism and Structural Borrowing" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 106(5): pp. 430-442, p. 441
  27. Michael M.T. Henderson, Four Varieties of Pashto
  28. "AFGHANISTAN vi. Paṧto". G. Morgenstierne. Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Version. Retrieved 2010-10-10.
  29. Vladimir Kushev (1997). "Areal Lexical Contacts of the Afghan (Pashto) Language (Based on the Texts of the XVI-XVIII Centuries)". Iran and the Caucasus. 1. Brill: 159–166. Retrieved 2009-06-07.
  30. "Census of India, 1931, Volume 17, Part 2". Times of India. 1937. Retrieved 2009-06-07. At the same time Pashto has borrowed largely from Persian and Hindustani, and through those languages from Arabic. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  31. ^ Herbert Penzl (January -March 1961). "Western Loanwords in Modern Pashto". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 81 (1): 43–52. doi:10.2307/594900. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  32. D. N. MacKenzie, "A Standard Pashto", Khyber.org

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