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{{short description|Fictional superluminal spacecraft propulsion system}}
{{Multiple issues|section=yes|OR = October 2009|primarysources = October 2009|date=May 2010}}
{{Other uses}}
{{More footnotes|date=November 2008}}
] ]
{{Spatial anomalies in fiction}}
'''Warp drive''' is a ] (FTL) propulsion system in the ] of many ] works, most notably '']''. A spacecraft equipped with a warp drive may travel at velocities greater than ] by many orders of magnitude, while circumventing the relativistic problem of ]. Some of the other fictions in which warp drive technology is featured include: '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']''. In contrast to many other fictional FTL technologies, such as a "]" or the ], the warp drive does not permit instantaneous travel between two points; instead, warp drive technology creates an artificial "bubble" of normal space-time that surrounds the spacecraft (as opposed to entering a separate realm or dimension like ], such as the "warp drive" which is used in the '']'' universe). Consequently, spacecraft at warp velocity can continue to interact with objects in normal space
A '''warp drive''' or a drive enabling '''space warp''' is a fictional ] (faster than the speed of light) ] system in many science fiction works, most notably '']'',<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krauss, Lawrence Maxwell.|title=The physics of Star Trek|date=2007|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-465-00863-6|oclc=787849957}}</ref> and a subject of ongoing real-life physics research. The general concept of "warp drive" was introduced by ] in his 1957 novel '']'' and was popularized by the '']'' series. Its closest real-life equivalent is the ], a theoretical solution of the field equations of ].<ref name="Alcubierre94">{{Cite journal|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0264-9381/11/5/001|doi = 10.1088/0264-9381/11/5/001|title = The warp drive: Hyper-fast travel within general relativity|year = 1994|last1 = Alcubierre|first1 = Miguel|journal = Classical and Quantum Gravity|volume = 11|issue = 5|pages = L73–L77|arxiv = gr-qc/0009013| bibcode=1994CQGra..11L..73A |s2cid = 4797900}}</ref>


== History and characteristics ==
The idea of warping space as a means of ] has enjoyed theoretical study by physicists such as ], who has designed ].<ref>, by Miguel Alcubierre</ref><ref> by Chad Clark, William A. Hiscock, and Shane L. Larson</ref> The propulsion techniques as well that flow from Extended Heim Theory, and which would use drive coils to affect space-time, are also generally in line with the picture of warp drive presented in the various Star Trek series as well as the technical publications. However, an approach to FTL travel based on either Alcubierre Drive Theory or Extended Heim Theory which could be facilitated by our present level of technological advancement has yet to be proposed.<ref></ref>
Warp drive, or a drive enabling space warp, is one of ].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=SFE: Space Warp|url=https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/space_warp|access-date=2021-11-10|website=sf-encyclopedia.com}}</ref> It has been often discussed as being conceptually similar to ].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Stableford|first=Brian M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uefwmdROKTAC&q=science+fact+and+science+fiction|title=Science Fact and Science Fiction: An Encyclopedia|date=2006|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-97460-8|language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|238–239}} A warp drive is a device that distorts the shape of the ].<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Prucher|first=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJCS0reqmFUC&dq=Earthling+%22science+fiction%22&pg=PP2|title=Brave New Words: The Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction|date=2007-05-07|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-988552-7|pages=|language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|142}} A spacecraft equipped with a warp drive may travel at speeds greater than ] by many orders of magnitude. In contrast to some other fictitious ] technologies such as a ], the warp drive does not permit instantaneous travel and transfers between two points, but rather involves a measurable passage of time which is pertinent to the concept. In contrast to hyperspace, spacecraft at warp velocity would continue to interact with objects in "normal space".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Musha |first1=Takaaki |last2=Minami |first2=Yoshinari |date=2011 |title=Field Propulsion System for Space Travel: Physics of Non-Conventional Propulsion Methods for Interstellar Travel |publisher=Bentham eBooks |page=58 |isbn=978-1-60805-270-7}}</ref><ref name="Miozzi">{{cite web |last=Miozzi |first=C. J. |date=18 June 2014 |title=5 Faster-Than-Light Travel Methods and Their Plausibility |url=https://www.escapistmagazine.com/5-faster-than-light-travel-methods-and-their-plausibility/ |access-date=11 November 2021 |website=]}}</ref>
==''The Original Series'': establishing a background==
Warp drive is one of the fundamental features of the Star Trek storyline; in the first pilot episode of '']'', "]", it is referred to as a "time warp" drive, and it is stated that the "time barrier" has been broken, allowing a group of stranded interstellar travelers to return to Earth far sooner than would have otherwise been possible.


The general concept of warp drive was introduced by ] in his 1957 novel ''].''<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|last=Gardiner|first=J.|year=2008|title=Warp Drive—From Imagination to Reality|journal=]|volume=61|pages=353–357|bibcode=2008JBIS...61..353G}}</ref><ref name="visual">{{Cite book|last=Ash|first=Brian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-SUYAAAAIAAJ&q=Visual+Encyclopedia+of+Science+Fiction|title=The Visual Encyclopedia of Science Fiction|date=1977|publisher=Harmony Books|isbn=978-0-517-53174-7|language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|77}}<ref name="spacewarp">{{Cite web|title=Themes : Space Warp : SFE : Science Fiction Encyclopedia|url=http://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/space_warp|access-date=2021-09-04|website=www.sf-encyclopedia.com}}</ref> '']'' gave the earliest example of the term "space-warp drive" as ]'s ''Gateway to Darkness'' (1949), and also cited an unnamed story from '']'' (May 1941) as using the word "warp" in the context of space travel, although the usage of this term as a "bend or curvature" in space which facilitates travel can be traced to several works as far back as the mid-1930s, for example ]'s '']'' (1936).<ref name=":42"/>{{Rp|212, 268}}
]
The episode "]", also from the original series, establishes a backstory for the invention of warp drive, stating that it was invented by ]. Cochrane is repeatedly referred to afterwards, but the exact details of the first warp trials were not shown until the second '']'' movie, '']''. The movie depicts Cochrane as having invented warp drive on Earth in 2063 (two years after the date speculated by the first edition of the ]). By using a matter/antimatter reactor to create ], and by sending this plasma through warp coils, he created a warp bubble which he could use to move a craft into ] and hence exceed the speed of light. This successful first trial led directly to first contact with the ].


== Einstein's space warp and real-world physics ==
The later prequel series '']'' describes the warp engine technology as a 'Gravimetric Field Displacement Manifold (]'s tour, "]"), and describes the device as being powered by an anti-matter/matter reaction which powers the two separate nacelles (one on each side of the ship) to create a displacement field (the aforementioned "bubble") The episode also firmly establishes that many other civilizations had warp drive before humans. Throughout the series, the viewer is made aware that the ]s have more advanced warp drive technology than humans even in the 22nd century. ''Enterprise'', set in 2151 onwards, follows the voyages of the first human ship capable of traveling at ] which under the old warp table formula, is about 140 times the speed of light. In the episode "]", ] equates warp 4.5 as "...] and back (from Earth) in six minutes."
] {{math|γ}} as a function of velocity. Its initial value is 1 (when {{nobr|''v'' {{=}} 0}}); and as velocity approaches the speed of light {{nobr|(''v'' → ''c'')}} {{math|γ}} increases without bound {{nobr|({{math|γ}} → ∞)}}.]]
Einstein's theory of ] states that speed of light travel is impossible for material objects that, unlike ]s, have a non-zero rest mass. The problem of a material object exceeding light speed is that an infinite amount of kinetic energy would be required to travel at exactly the speed of light. Warp drives are one of the science-fiction tropes that serve to circumvent this limitation in fiction to facilitate stories set at galactic scales.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SFE: Faster Than Light|url=https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/faster_than_light|access-date=2021-11-10|website=sf-encyclopedia.com}}</ref> However, the concept of space warp has been criticized as "illogical", and has been connected to several other ] ideas that do not fit into our current understanding of physics, such as ] or ].<ref name=":0" />


Some argue that these effects mean that although it's not possible to travel faster than the speed of light, both space and time "warp" to allow travelling the distance of one light year, in less than a year. Although it is not possible to travel faster than the speed of light, the effective speed is faster than light. This warping of space and time is precisely mathematically specified by the ], which depends on velocity. Although only theoretical when published over 100 years ago, the effect has since been ] many times. In the limit, at light speed time stops completely (relative to a certain reference frame) and it is possible to travel infinite distances across space with no passage of time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Einstein |first=Albert |year=1905 |title=Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper |url=http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/2786 |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=322 |issue=10 |pages=891–921 |bibcode=1905AnP...322..891E |doi=10.1002/andp.19053221004 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Minkowski |first=Hermann |title=Die Grundgleichungen für die elektromagnetischen Vorgänge in bewegten Körpern |work=Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse |pages=53–111 |year=1908 |orig-year=1907 |trans-title=] |title-link=s:Die Grundgleichungen für die elektromagnetischen Vorgänge in bewegten Körpern}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |date=2005-06-28 |title=A Trip Forward in Time. Your Travel Agent: Einstein. |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/28/science/a-trip-forward-in-time-your-travel-agent-einstein.html?_r=0 |access-date=2015-12-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gott |first=Richard J. |title=Time Travel in Einstein's Universe |year=2002 |pages=75}}</ref>
==''The Next Generation'' onwards==
Plots involving the ''Enterprise'' traveling beyond warp 10 were once featured in the original series (such as warp 14.1 in ]), and for ''The Next Generation'', it was decided that these would no longer be featured. A new warp scale was drawn up, with warp factor 10 set as an unattainable maximum. This is described in some technical manuals as ''Eugene's Limit'', in homage to creator/producer ]. Normal maximum warp in the original series was warp 8.
The warp factors above warp 10 in '']'', such as the one above, were slower than warp 10 on the new scale, which reaches an ] at warp 10, representing infinite velocity in accordance with the limit imposed by the producers. The much-maligned<ref></ref> '']'' episode "]" concurred with this: the characters ruled that reaching the velocity of warp 10 was impossible — in spite of this, they went on to achieve the velocity, experiencing a peculiar side effect; they underwent a process of hyper-] culminating in their transformation into ] ]s. In this episode, ] explains that, while traveling at warp 10, he was simultaneously present in every part of the universe. At this velocity, the shuttlecraft Cochrane's sensors are able to collect such enormous amounts of telemetry that the shuttle's storage capacity is completely filled.


The solution to Einstein’s field equations proposed by Alcubierre defines a spacetime metric—known as the '''Alcubierre metric'''—where spacetime itself is distorted in a controlled manner. The metric creates a region of compressed spacetime in front of the spacecraft and expanded spacetime behind it, forming a "warp bubble." The spacecraft resides within this bubble, moving with the local spacetime without experiencing relativistic time dilation or violating causality.
The limit of 10 did not entirely stop warp inflation. By the mid-24th century, the ] could travel at warp 9.8 at "extreme risk", while normal maximum operating velocity was warp 9.6 and maximum rated cruise was warp 9.2. The ] starship '']'' has a maximum sustainable cruising velocity of warp 9.975, the ] can go even faster at Warp 9.985. In the alternative future depicted in "All Good Things..." (the final episode of the Star Trek:TNG), Federation starships travel at warp 13.


Mathematically, the Alcubierre metric is expressed as:
==Warp velocities==<!--
Section title used as anchor at ]: please amend there if altering -->
Warp drive velocity in Star Trek is generally expressed in "warp factor" units, which—according to the ''Star Trek Technical Manuals''—correspond to the magnitude of the warp field. Achieving warp factor 1 is equivalent to breaking the light barrier, while the actual velocity corresponding to higher factors is determined using an ambiguous formula. Several episodes of the original series placed the ''Enterprise'' in peril by having it travel at high warp factors; at one point in "]" the Enterprise traveled at a warp factor of 14.1. In the '']'' episode "]" the crew of Enterprise-D discovers that the android ] may have been stolen while on board another ship, Jovis. At this point the Jovis, which has a maximum warp factor of 3 has had a 23 hour head start which the Enterprise-D figures puts her anywhere within .102 light year radius of her last known position. However, the velocity of any given warp factor is rarely the subject of explicit expression, and travel times for specific interstellar distances are not consistent through the various series.


<math>dx^2 = -c^2 dt^2 + \left(dx - v_s f(r_s) dt\right)^2 + dy^2 + dz^2</math>
According to the Star Trek episode writer's guide for ''The Original Series'', warp factors are supposedly converted to multiples of c with the ] <math>v = w^3c</math>, where ''w'' is the warp factor, ''<math>v</math>'' is the velocity, and ''c'' is the ]. Accordingly, "warp 1" is equivalent to the speed of light, "warp 2" is eight times the speed of light, "warp 3" is 27 times the speed of light, etc.


where:
]
For '']'' and the subsequent series, Star Trek artist ] devised a formula based on the original one but with important differences. For warp 1–9, <math>s(w) = w^{10 \over 3}c</math>. In the ] from warp 9 to warp 10, the exponent of ''w'' increases toward infinity. Thus, in the Okuda scale, warp velocities approach warp 10 ]. There is no exact formula for this interval because the quoted velocities are based on a hand-drawn curve; what can be said is that at velocities greater than warp 9, the form of the warp function changes because of an increase in the exponent of the warp factor <math>w</math>. Due to the resultant increase in the ], even a minor change in the warp factor corresponds to an exponentially larger change in velocity.


* <math>v_s</math>​ is the speed of the warp bubble,
Exact velocities were only given in the Voyager episode "]" where ] describes Voyager's velocity at warp factor 9.9 (under the new warp table formula) as being about 4 billion miles per second, which would be over 21,000 times the speed of light.
* <math>f(r_s)</math> is a shape function that determines the smoothness and size of the bubble,
* <math>r_s = \sqrt{(x - x_s(t))^2 + y^2 + z^2}</math>is the radial distance from the spacecraft center.


The creation of such a bubble requires ''']'''—substances with negative energy density (a violation of the Weak Energy Condition). ] experiments have hinted at the existence of negative energy in quantum fields, but practical production at the required scale remains speculative.
==Transwarp==
The term ''transwarp'' has been used a number of times, referring to an advanced form of warp drive used by the ]. However, the term also refers to a ] development project in '']''. Episodes of ''The Next Generation'' and ''Voyager'' seem to indicate that transwarp technology involves a ] conduit directly ''through'' ] as opposed to warping normal space via a manipulation of subspace. However, in the ''Voyager'' episode "]", a species known as the ] used a transwarp technology that didn't appear to be similar to Borg transwarp, but rather an enhanced warp technology. It would seem more appropriate, therefore, for the term "transwarp" to refer to any propulsion system that can be considered superior in potential velocity to standard warp drive, without implying any ''specific'' technique correlating to this superior velocity.


Similarly, a quantum drive might utilize quantum field theory to exploit vacuum energy, leveraging phenomena such as the ''']''' of the ]. The drive could theoretically manipulate virtual particle pairs or create localized energy gradients via quantum entanglement. The energy density of the quantum vacuum, often estimated as 10113J/m3 in the context of quantum field fluctuations, could provide immense power if harnessed effectively.
===Federation experiments===
The ], under command of Captain Styles, was a Federation test-ship for prototype transwarp technology. It is described in '']'' as allowing a ship to instantaneously travel at any warp velocity, rather than having to progressively increase velocity to the desired magnitude. ''Excelsior''{{'}}s first attempt to enter transwarp failed due to sabotage by Chief Engineer Scott of the ''Enterprise'', which prevented the ''Excelsior'' from pursuing them.


Although the concept of warp drive has originated in fiction, it has received some scientific consideration, most notably related to the 1990s concept of the ].<ref name=":1" /> Alcubierre stated in an email to ] that his theory was directly inspired by the term used in the TV series '']''<ref>{{cite web|last=Shapiro|first=Alan|title=The Physics of Warp Drive|url=http://www.alan-shapiro.com/the-physics-of-warp-drive/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424012220/http://www.alan-shapiro.com/the-physics-of-warp-drive/|archive-date=24 April 2013|access-date=2 June 2013}}</ref> and cites the "'warp drive' of science fiction" in his 1994 article.<ref name="Alcubierre94"/>
The bridge readouts of ] at the end of '']'' (illustrated in the spin-off reference work, '']'' published in 1987) suggest that the project ultimately succeeded and the USS Enterprise was indeed fitted with transwarp. ]'s memoirs attribute the lack of transwarp in '']'' to ]'s dislike of the concept.<ref>{{cite book|author=Susan Sackett|title=Inside Trek: My Secret Life With Star Trek Creator Gene Roddenberry|publisher=HAWK Publishing Group|isbn=1-930709-42-0|year=2002}}</ref>


In 2021, ]-funded researcher ], of the Limitless Space Institute, claimed that he had succeeded in creating a real warp bubble, saying "our detailed numerical analysis of our custom ] helped us identify a real and manufacturable nano/microstructure that is predicted to generate a negative vacuum energy density such that it would manifest a real nanoscale warp bubble, not an analog, but the real thing."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Coontz |first=Lauren |date=December 9, 2021 |title=DARPA and NASA Scientists Accidentally Create Warp Bubble for Interstellar Travel |url=https://coffeeordie.com/alcubierre-white-warp-drive |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=Coffee or Die Magazine |language=en}}</ref>
===Borg conduits===
It is revealed in the episodes "]" and "]" that the ] have discovered the existence of transwarp conduits — regions in subspace that facilitate travel at velocities up to 20 times those of conventional warp drives.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} These episodes established that the Borg set up networks of these conduits between important areas in the galaxy. Borg transwarp conduits are activated by an encoded ] pulse. When a Borg vessel enters a transwarp conduit, it is subject to extreme gravimetric shear; to compensate, the Borg project a structural integrity field ahead of the vessel. Artificial conduits are linked together with transwarp hubs, of which six were known to exist; in "]" one of these hubs, along with the ], is destroyed.


== ''Star Trek'' ==
===Quantum slipstream===
{{main|Technology in Star Trek#Warp drive}}
{{See also|Slipstream (science fiction)}}
{{Anchor|Transwarp}}
{{Anchor|Coaxial warp drive}}
]
Warp drive is one of the fundamental features of the ''Star Trek'' franchise and one of the best-known examples of space warp (warp drive) in fiction.<ref name=":0" /> In the first pilot episode of '']'', "]", it is referred to as a "hyperdrive", with Captain Pike stating the speed to reach planet Talos{{nbsp}}IV as "time warp, factor 7". The warp drive in Star Trek is one of the most detailed fictional technologies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dodds |first=Alice Rose |date=2022-06-10 |title=Star Trek's Warp Drive Technology, Explained |url=https://gamerant.com/star-trek-warp-drive-technology-explained/ |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=Game Rant |language=en}}</ref> Compared to the ]s of other fictional universes, it differs in that a spaceship does not leave the normal space-time continuum and instead the space-time itself is distorted, as is made possible in the ].<ref name=Miozzi/>


The basic functional principle of the warp drive in ''Star Trek'' is the same for all spaceships. A strong energy source, usually a so-called'' warp core'' or sometimes called ''intermix chamber'', generates a high-energy ]. This plasma is transported to the so-called ''warp field generators'' via lines that are reminiscent of pipes. These generators are basically coils in ''warp nacelles'' protruding from the spaceship. These generate a subspace field, the so-called ''warp field'' or a ''warp bubble'', which distort space-time and propels the bubble and spaceship in the bubble forward.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Okuda|first=Michael & Denise|title=Star Trek Technical Manual|page=56}}</ref>
''Quantum slipstream drive'' is presumably the standard means of interstellar travel used by Species 116 (of which ] was a member) prior to their assimilation by the Borg. In the '']'' episode "]", ] remarks that the technology involved is not dissimilar to Borg transwarp technology — her point being that both drives involve the traveling vessel becoming immersed in an alternative plane of space-time rather than warping normal space-time.


The warp core can be designed in various forms. Humans and most of the other fictional races use a moderated reaction of ] and ]. The energy produced passes through a matrix, which is made of a fictional chemical element, called ]. However, other species are shown to use different methods for faster-than-light propulsion. The ], for example, use ] called ''quantum singularities''.<ref>]</ref>
This method of travel is also highly similar to the method of ] travel used on space ships in '']'' (referenced as "'']''" travel), and Slipstream used in '']'', another space opera created by Gene Roddenberry.


The speeds are given in warp factors and follow a ]. The first scale developed by ] was simply a ] with no limit.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Joseph|first=Franz|title=Star Trek: Star Fleet Technical Manual}}</ref> This leads to the use of ever growing warp factors in ] and the '']''. For example, warp 14.1 in the TOS-episode "]" or warp 36 in the TAS-episode "]". In order to focus more on the story and away from the technobabble, ] commissioned ] to invent a revised warp scale. Warp 10 should be the absolute limit and stand for infinite speed. In homage to Gene Roddenberry, this limit was also called "Eugene's Limit". Okuda explains this in an author's comment in his technical manual for the USS ''Enterprise''-D.<ref name="Okuda 55">{{Cite book|last=Okuda|first=Michael & Denise|title=Star Trek Technical Manual|page=55}}</ref> Between Warp 1 (the ]) and Warp 9, the increase was still roughly geometric, but the exponent was adjusted so that the speeds were higher compared to the old scale. For instance, Warp 9 is more than 1500 times faster than Warp 1 in comparison to the 729 times (nine to the power of 3) calculated using the original cubic formula. In the same author's comment, Okuda explains that the motivation was to fulfill fan expectations that the new Enterprise is much faster than the original, but without changing the warp factor numbers.<ref name="Okuda 55"/> Between Warp 9 and Warp 10, the new scale ].<ref name="Okuda 55"/> Only in a single episode of ''Star Trek Voyager'' there was a specific numerical speed value given for a warp factor. In the episode "]", Tom Paris tells Amelia Earhart that Warp 9.9 is about 4 billion miles per second (using ] for the character's benefit).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Voyager Transcripts – The 37's |url=http://www.chakoteya.net/Voyager/119.htm |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=www.chakoteya.net}}</ref> That is more than 14 times the value of Warp 9 and equal to around 21,400 times speed of light. However, this statement contradicts the technical manuals and encyclopedias written by Rick Sternbach and Michael Okuda, where a speed of 3053 times the speed of light was established for a warp factor of 9.9 and a speed of 7912 times the speed of light for a warp factor of 9.99. Both numerical values are well below the value given by Tom Paris.<ref name="Okuda 413">{{Cite book|last=Okuda|first=Michael & Denise|title=Star Trek Encyclopedia|page=413}}</ref>
===In the books===
Some years after ''Star Trek: The Original Series'' (''TOS''), ] came out with a series of publications based upon the ''Enterprise's'' encounters during both its first and second five year missions. In "]" written by ], the crew picks up a Hamalki engineer, which invents a new form of the ''transwarp drive''. Even though such books are not considered canon, the theories proposed in the book lend to the ideas of warp and transwarp, and further explain the properties of ].


In the episode "]", a ''coaxial warp drive'' is mentioned. The working principle is explained in more detail in the ''Star Trek Encyclopedia''. This variant of a warp drive uses ] instead of a warp field and allows an instant movement with nearly infinite velocity.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Okuda|first=Michael & Denise|title=Star Trek Encyclopedia|page=149}}</ref>
According to the aforementioned book, warp drive does indeed create a bubble of space-time around the ship; however, it is explained that the ship is surrounded by a bubble of subspace — another universe where the speed of light is much faster than in ours; furthermore, the alternate universe is ''attuned'' with our own, such that planetary bodies are in exactly the same place, which simplifies navigation — thus the book leans toward the theories of superstring-manipulation, rather than those of ''warping'' normal space-time.


''Star Trek'' has also introduced a so-called ''Transwarp'' concept, but without a fixed definition.<ref name="Okuda 413"/> It is effectively a catch-all phrase for any and all technologies and natural phenomena that enable speeds above Warp 9.99.<ref>{{Cite magazine|title=Star Trek Fact Files|page=File 5, Card 19}}</ref>
The transwarp device invented by the Hamalki uses a different approach to the same idea; in this case, it creates a field around the ship which allows it to enter ] — a space in which there is infinite energy, zero mass (with exceptions) and no absolute laws of physics. This essentially allows the ''Enterprise'' to enter De Sitter space and travel millions of times faster than light. In the narrative, the ''Enterprise'' succeeds in reaching the ] (200 years away at warp 8), a dwarf galaxy in orbit around the ] galaxy.


Rick Sternbach described the basic idea in the Technical Manual: <blockquote>"Finally, we had to provide some loophole for various powerful aliens like Q, who have a knack for tossing the ship million of light years in the time of a commercial break. This lets Q and his friends have fun in the 9.9999+ range, but also lets our ship travel slowly enough to keep the galaxy a big place, and meets the other criteria."<ref name="Okuda 55"/></blockquote>
==Slingshot effect==
A curious extension of warp travel which has been shown throughout Star Trek is the "]". First discovered accidentally in "]" (1967), one of the earlier episodes of the original Star Trek series, it is a method of ]. Whereas the actual procedure is intentionally obscure, it involved traveling at a high warp velocity (depicted in '']'' to be over warp 9.8) in the direction of a star, on a precisely calculated "slingshot" path; if successful, the ship is caused to travel to a desired point, past or future. The same technique was used later in the episode "]" (1968) for historic research — in this episode, the warp factor required for ''"time warp"'' is given the name "light speed breakaway factor" — the term ''"time warp"'' being established in ''Star Trek IV''. The technique was mentioned as a viable method of time travel in the TNG episode "]" (1989).


==See also==
This 'slingshot' effect has been explored in theoretical physics: it is hypothetically possible (though not practical or at all safe) to slingshot oneself 'around' the event horizon of a black hole. The result of such a maneuver would cause time to pass at a faster rate, relative to the ship within the event horizon. Such a journey would, unfortunately, be a 'one-way' trip into the future — the pilot of the craft would not have 'traveled through time' in the classical sense, but would instead have merely 'skipped over' the intervening years. Travel in entropic directions other than forwards remain impossible to ascertain within the rubric of Special Relativity.
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]s
* ]
* ]
{{Portal|Science fiction|Space}}


==References==
Fans of the show and films have noted that the Slingshot involves a star, rather than a black hole, and the most normal consensus from its use concerns the nature of warp travel and warp velocities. A black hole is noteworthy for its singularity and associated event horizon, where not even light possesses escape velocity. Warp-drive and other transluminal vehicles would however be able to escape a black hole event horizon, as they are capable of speeds greater than ''c''. Stars do not possess an event horizon, as their escape velocities are considerably lower than those of black holes. They do however have very great masses. A vessel able to move at transluminal velocities would then be able to take advantage of relativistic physics: interaction with the mass of non-black hole stellar mass at transluminal velocities is very similar to the interaction between a subluminal vessel and a black hole event horizon, in terms of relativistic boundary interactions and equivalence of energy. A warp-ship, then, is able to perform as its own 'event-horizon' when interacting with a stellar mass.


{{Reflist|30em}}
==Warp core==<!-- This section is linked from ] -->
A primary component of the warp drive method of propulsion in the ] universe is the "gravimetric field displacement manifold," more commonly referred to as a ''warp core''. It is a fictional ] which taps the energy released in a ]-] annihilation to provide the energy necessary to power a starship's warp drive, allowing ] travel. Starship warp cores generally also serve as powerplants for other primary ship systems.


==External links==
When matter and antimatter come into contact, they ''annihilate'' — both matter and antimatter are converted directly into enormous quantities of energy, as electromagnetic radiation. In the ''Star Trek'' universe, fictional "]" are used to regulate this reaction. These crystals are described as being non-reactive to anti-matter when bombarded with high levels of radiation. Usually, the reactants are ], an ] of ], and antideuterium (its ] counterpart). The reaction chamber is surrounded by powerful magnetic fields to contain the anti-matter. If the containment fields ever fail, the subsequent interaction of the antimatter fuel with the container walls would result in a catastrophic release of energy, with the resultant explosion capable of utterly destroying the ship. Such "warp core breaches" are used as plot devices in many Star Trek episodes.


{{Commons category|Warp drive theory}}
==See also==
* 2d plot in Google{{Memory Alpha|Warp drive}}
{{Portal|Space}}
* {{Memory Alpha|Warp core}}
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* {{Memory Alpha|Transwarp|Transwarp drive}}
*]
* {{Memory Alpha|Quantum Slipstream|Quantum slipstream drive}}
*]
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080707043144/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/technology/warp/warp.html |date=2008-07-07 }}
*]
* What would things look like at near-warp speeds?
*]s
*
*]
* {{cite news|title=Warp drive possible|date=1999-06-10|work=]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/364496.stm|access-date=2008-08-05}}
*]
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123161102/http://news.discovery.com/space/warp-drive-possible-nasa-tests-100yss-120917.html |date=2012-11-23 }}
*]
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==Notes==
{{Refbegin}}
*When ] guest starred on the ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' episode "]", he was taken on a guided tour of the set. Pausing in front of the warp core set piece, he remarked, "I'm working on that".<ref>{{cite book|title=I'm Working on That: A Trek From Science Fiction to Science Fact|author=William Shatner|authorlink=William Shatner|coauthors=Chip Walter|date=2002|publisher=]|isbn=0-671047-37-X}}</ref>
{{Refend}}
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{memoryalpha article|Warp_drive|Warp drive}}
{{memoryalpha article|Warp_core|Warp core}}
{{memoryalpha article|Transwarp|Transwarp drive}}
{{memoryalpha article|Quantum Slipstream|Quantum slipstream drive}}
*
* What would things look like at near-warp speeds?
*
*{{cite news|author=|title=Warp drive possible|date=1999-06-10|work=]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/364496.stm|accessdate=2008-08-05}}

{{Star Trek technology}}
{{Star Trek}} {{Star Trek}}
{{emerging technologies|topics=yes|space=yes}}
{{Science fiction}}


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Latest revision as of 03:01, 18 January 2025

Fictional superluminal spacecraft propulsion system For other uses, see Warp drive (disambiguation).
Artistic rendition of a ship with warp drive activated
Spatial anomalies in fiction

Black holes in fiction • Portable hole • Teleportation in fiction • Wormholes in fiction • Stargate • Warp drive • Hyperspace • Time travel in fiction

icon Science fiction portal

A warp drive or a drive enabling space warp is a fictional superluminal (faster than the speed of light) spacecraft propulsion system in many science fiction works, most notably Star Trek, and a subject of ongoing real-life physics research. The general concept of "warp drive" was introduced by John W. Campbell in his 1957 novel Islands of Space and was popularized by the Star Trek series. Its closest real-life equivalent is the Alcubierre drive, a theoretical solution of the field equations of general relativity.

History and characteristics

Warp drive, or a drive enabling space warp, is one of several ways of travelling through space found in science fiction. It has been often discussed as being conceptually similar to hyperspace. A warp drive is a device that distorts the shape of the space-time continuum. A spacecraft equipped with a warp drive may travel at speeds greater than that of light by many orders of magnitude. In contrast to some other fictitious faster-than-light technologies such as a jump drive, the warp drive does not permit instantaneous travel and transfers between two points, but rather involves a measurable passage of time which is pertinent to the concept. In contrast to hyperspace, spacecraft at warp velocity would continue to interact with objects in "normal space".

The general concept of warp drive was introduced by John W. Campbell in his 1957 novel Islands of Space. Brave New Words gave the earliest example of the term "space-warp drive" as Fredric Brown's Gateway to Darkness (1949), and also cited an unnamed story from Cosmic Stories (May 1941) as using the word "warp" in the context of space travel, although the usage of this term as a "bend or curvature" in space which facilitates travel can be traced to several works as far back as the mid-1930s, for example Jack Williamson's The Cometeers (1936).

Einstein's space warp and real-world physics

Lorentz factor γ as a function of velocity. Its initial value is 1 (when v = 0); and as velocity approaches the speed of light (v → c) γ increases without bound (γ → ∞).

Einstein's theory of special relativity states that speed of light travel is impossible for material objects that, unlike photons, have a non-zero rest mass. The problem of a material object exceeding light speed is that an infinite amount of kinetic energy would be required to travel at exactly the speed of light. Warp drives are one of the science-fiction tropes that serve to circumvent this limitation in fiction to facilitate stories set at galactic scales. However, the concept of space warp has been criticized as "illogical", and has been connected to several other rubber science ideas that do not fit into our current understanding of physics, such as antigravity or negative mass.

Some argue that these effects mean that although it's not possible to travel faster than the speed of light, both space and time "warp" to allow travelling the distance of one light year, in less than a year. Although it is not possible to travel faster than the speed of light, the effective speed is faster than light. This warping of space and time is precisely mathematically specified by the Lorentz factor, which depends on velocity. Although only theoretical when published over 100 years ago, the effect has since been measured and confirmed many times. In the limit, at light speed time stops completely (relative to a certain reference frame) and it is possible to travel infinite distances across space with no passage of time.

The solution to Einstein’s field equations proposed by Alcubierre defines a spacetime metric—known as the Alcubierre metric—where spacetime itself is distorted in a controlled manner. The metric creates a region of compressed spacetime in front of the spacecraft and expanded spacetime behind it, forming a "warp bubble." The spacecraft resides within this bubble, moving with the local spacetime without experiencing relativistic time dilation or violating causality.

Mathematically, the Alcubierre metric is expressed as:

d x 2 = − c 2 d t 2 + ( d x − v s f ( r s ) d t ) 2 + d y 2 + d z 2 {\displaystyle dx^{2}=-c^{2}dt^{2}+\left(dx-v_{s}f(r_{s})dt\right)^{2}+dy^{2}+dz^{2}}

where:

  • v s {\displaystyle v_{s}} ​ is the speed of the warp bubble,
  • f ( r s ) {\displaystyle f(r_{s})} is a shape function that determines the smoothness and size of the bubble,
  • r s = ( x − x s ( t ) ) 2 + y 2 + z 2 {\displaystyle r_{s}={\sqrt {(x-x_{s}(t))^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}}}} is the radial distance from the spacecraft center.

The creation of such a bubble requires exotic matter—substances with negative energy density (a violation of the Weak Energy Condition). Casimir effect experiments have hinted at the existence of negative energy in quantum fields, but practical production at the required scale remains speculative.

Similarly, a quantum drive might utilize quantum field theory to exploit vacuum energy, leveraging phenomena such as the zero-point energy of the quantum vacuum. The drive could theoretically manipulate virtual particle pairs or create localized energy gradients via quantum entanglement. The energy density of the quantum vacuum, often estimated as 10113J/m3 in the context of quantum field fluctuations, could provide immense power if harnessed effectively.

Although the concept of warp drive has originated in fiction, it has received some scientific consideration, most notably related to the 1990s concept of the Alcubierre drive. Alcubierre stated in an email to William Shatner that his theory was directly inspired by the term used in the TV series Star Trek and cites the "'warp drive' of science fiction" in his 1994 article.

In 2021, DARPA-funded researcher Harold White, of the Limitless Space Institute, claimed that he had succeeded in creating a real warp bubble, saying "our detailed numerical analysis of our custom Casimir cavities helped us identify a real and manufacturable nano/microstructure that is predicted to generate a negative vacuum energy density such that it would manifest a real nanoscale warp bubble, not an analog, but the real thing."

Star Trek

Main article: Technology in Star Trek § Warp drive

A representation of a Star Trek "warp bubble"

Warp drive is one of the fundamental features of the Star Trek franchise and one of the best-known examples of space warp (warp drive) in fiction. In the first pilot episode of Star Trek: The Original Series, "The Cage", it is referred to as a "hyperdrive", with Captain Pike stating the speed to reach planet Talos IV as "time warp, factor 7". The warp drive in Star Trek is one of the most detailed fictional technologies. Compared to the hyperspace drives of other fictional universes, it differs in that a spaceship does not leave the normal space-time continuum and instead the space-time itself is distorted, as is made possible in the general theory of relativity.

The basic functional principle of the warp drive in Star Trek is the same for all spaceships. A strong energy source, usually a so-called warp core or sometimes called intermix chamber, generates a high-energy plasma. This plasma is transported to the so-called warp field generators via lines that are reminiscent of pipes. These generators are basically coils in warp nacelles protruding from the spaceship. These generate a subspace field, the so-called warp field or a warp bubble, which distort space-time and propels the bubble and spaceship in the bubble forward.

The warp core can be designed in various forms. Humans and most of the other fictional races use a moderated reaction of antimatter and matter. The energy produced passes through a matrix, which is made of a fictional chemical element, called dilithium. However, other species are shown to use different methods for faster-than-light propulsion. The Romulans, for example, use artificial micro-black holes called quantum singularities.

The speeds are given in warp factors and follow a geometric progression. The first scale developed by Franz Joseph was simply a cubic progression with no limit. This leads to the use of ever growing warp factors in the Original Series and the Animated Series. For example, warp 14.1 in the TOS-episode "That Which Survives" or warp 36 in the TAS-episode "The Counter-Clock Incident". In order to focus more on the story and away from the technobabble, Gene Roddenberry commissioned Michael Okuda to invent a revised warp scale. Warp 10 should be the absolute limit and stand for infinite speed. In homage to Gene Roddenberry, this limit was also called "Eugene's Limit". Okuda explains this in an author's comment in his technical manual for the USS Enterprise-D. Between Warp 1 (the speed of light) and Warp 9, the increase was still roughly geometric, but the exponent was adjusted so that the speeds were higher compared to the old scale. For instance, Warp 9 is more than 1500 times faster than Warp 1 in comparison to the 729 times (nine to the power of 3) calculated using the original cubic formula. In the same author's comment, Okuda explains that the motivation was to fulfill fan expectations that the new Enterprise is much faster than the original, but without changing the warp factor numbers. Between Warp 9 and Warp 10, the new scale grows exponentially. Only in a single episode of Star Trek Voyager there was a specific numerical speed value given for a warp factor. In the episode "The 37's", Tom Paris tells Amelia Earhart that Warp 9.9 is about 4 billion miles per second (using customary units for the character's benefit). That is more than 14 times the value of Warp 9 and equal to around 21,400 times speed of light. However, this statement contradicts the technical manuals and encyclopedias written by Rick Sternbach and Michael Okuda, where a speed of 3053 times the speed of light was established for a warp factor of 9.9 and a speed of 7912 times the speed of light for a warp factor of 9.99. Both numerical values are well below the value given by Tom Paris.

In the episode "Vis à Vis", a coaxial warp drive is mentioned. The working principle is explained in more detail in the Star Trek Encyclopedia. This variant of a warp drive uses spatial folding instead of a warp field and allows an instant movement with nearly infinite velocity.

Star Trek has also introduced a so-called Transwarp concept, but without a fixed definition. It is effectively a catch-all phrase for any and all technologies and natural phenomena that enable speeds above Warp 9.99.

Rick Sternbach described the basic idea in the Technical Manual:

"Finally, we had to provide some loophole for various powerful aliens like Q, who have a knack for tossing the ship million of light years in the time of a commercial break. This lets Q and his friends have fun in the 9.9999+ range, but also lets our ship travel slowly enough to keep the galaxy a big place, and meets the other criteria."

See also

References

  1. Krauss, Lawrence Maxwell. (2007). The physics of Star Trek. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00863-6. OCLC 787849957.
  2. ^ Alcubierre, Miguel (1994). "The warp drive: Hyper-fast travel within general relativity". Classical and Quantum Gravity. 11 (5): L73 – L77. arXiv:gr-qc/0009013. Bibcode:1994CQGra..11L..73A. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/11/5/001. S2CID 4797900.
  3. ^ "SFE: Space Warp". sf-encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2021-11-10.
  4. Stableford, Brian M. (2006). Science Fact and Science Fiction: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-97460-8.
  5. ^ Prucher, Jeff (2007-05-07). Brave New Words: The Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-988552-7.
  6. Musha, Takaaki; Minami, Yoshinari (2011). Field Propulsion System for Space Travel: Physics of Non-Conventional Propulsion Methods for Interstellar Travel. Bentham eBooks. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-60805-270-7.
  7. ^ Miozzi, C. J. (18 June 2014). "5 Faster-Than-Light Travel Methods and Their Plausibility". The Escapist. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  8. ^ Gardiner, J. (2008). "Warp Drive—From Imagination to Reality". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 61: 353–357. Bibcode:2008JBIS...61..353G.
  9. Ash, Brian (1977). The Visual Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. Harmony Books. ISBN 978-0-517-53174-7.
  10. "Themes : Space Warp : SFE : Science Fiction Encyclopedia". www.sf-encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2021-09-04.
  11. "SFE: Faster Than Light". sf-encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2021-11-10.
  12. Einstein, Albert (1905). "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper". Annalen der Physik. 322 (10): 891–921. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004.
  13. Minkowski, Hermann (1908) , "Die Grundgleichungen für die elektromagnetischen Vorgänge in bewegten Körpern"  [The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies], Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse, pp. 53–111
  14. Overbye, Dennis (2005-06-28). "A Trip Forward in Time. Your Travel Agent: Einstein". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-12-08.
  15. Gott, Richard J. (2002). Time Travel in Einstein's Universe. p. 75.
  16. Shapiro, Alan. "The Physics of Warp Drive". Archived from the original on 24 April 2013. Retrieved 2 June 2013.
  17. Coontz, Lauren (December 9, 2021). "DARPA and NASA Scientists Accidentally Create Warp Bubble for Interstellar Travel". Coffee or Die Magazine. Retrieved 2024-05-27.
  18. Dodds, Alice Rose (2022-06-10). "Star Trek's Warp Drive Technology, Explained". Game Rant. Retrieved 2023-01-19.
  19. Okuda, Michael & Denise. Star Trek Technical Manual. p. 56.
  20. Star Trek Fact Files, File 64, Card 6, Warp core function
  21. Joseph, Franz. Star Trek: Star Fleet Technical Manual.
  22. ^ Okuda, Michael & Denise. Star Trek Technical Manual. p. 55.
  23. "The Voyager Transcripts – The 37's". www.chakoteya.net. Retrieved 2024-05-27.
  24. ^ Okuda, Michael & Denise. Star Trek Encyclopedia. p. 413.
  25. Okuda, Michael & Denise. Star Trek Encyclopedia. p. 149.
  26. "Star Trek Fact Files". p. File 5, Card 19. {{cite magazine}}: Cite magazine requires |magazine= (help)

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