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Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social stratification, such as clans, gentes, or the Indian caste system.

Etymology of the English word caste

The word caste is derived from the Romance word casta (seen in Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian), which (in addition to representing the same concept as English caste) can mean "lineage" or "race". It comes from Romance casto, which can mean "pure" or "chaste" . Casto is derived from Latin castus, which also meant "pure" or "chaste".

Definitions

Caste as a religious concept is recognized by Oxford Dictionary as "each of the hereditary classes of Hindu society, distinguished by relative degrees of ritual purity or pollution and of social status." and as " any exclusive social class." Anthropologists use the term more generally, to refer to a social group that is endogamous and occupationally specialized; such groups are common in highly stratified societies with a very low degree of social mobility. In its broadest sense, examples of caste-based societies include colonial Latin America under Spanish and Portuguese rule (see Casta), apart from India prior to 1947.

Castes in India

The traditional hereditary system of social stratification of India, in which all social classes exist in thousands of endogamous groups is termed as Jāti. The Jati system, usually with politically and economically derived hierarchies, has been followed across the Indian Subcontinent with regional variations across India,Pakistan,Bangladesh and Nepal.Different religious denominations have traditionally followed different kinds of Jati stratification. While the prevalence of the Jati system has reduced significantly over the course of the twentieth century, remote and rural areas of the subcontinent continue to subscribe to Jati and Jati segregation.

Caste, on the other hand is a theoretical construct of the Brahmin scholars to describe and categorise(Varna) the complex social arrangement of which they were themselves a part. In the absence of any other better word, Varna was translated as Caste by the Europeans, with its connotations of racial purity. Contrary to popular belief, historically there was a great deal of mobility and intermingling within Indian castes, other than Brahmins, largely based on economic or political status of the concerned group.

The Brahmins were enjoined by their scriptures and texts, including the Manusmriti, to live in poverty and to shun possessions and temporal power and instead devote themselves to study and teaching of scriptures and other knowledge, pure conduct and spiritual growth. In fact, they usually subsisted on alms from the rest of the society, including the so called backward caste of "Shudras". This is an important point in understanding the difference between Caste and Class.

Caste became an important element of Indian politics after the British used the entirely theoretical construct of Varna, now Caste, as the basis of classifying the Indian population, especially the Hindus, in the Population Censuses of late 19th Century. This became more specific in the 1901 Census, because the Indian population, not being aware of what the Brahmins thought of them, by and large did not understand what was meant by "Caste" and gave their occupation, religion, education etc as their "Caste". In the 1901 Census, the people were asked to slot themselves, or were slotted by enumerators, as members of the specific castes of Brahmin, Khshatriya, Vaishya ,Shudra etc . This was ostensibly done to simplify an otherwise difficult to slot society, with subtle hierarchies, for the purposes of better statistical manipulation.

Thus,a purely theoretical construct of "Varna" or "Caste" now became a living entity and got embedded in the minds of intellectuals and common people alike as an "ancient" system of social segregation.

It did not take much time to become a significant political issue in India and members of certain castes often form Votebanks that subscribe to special interest political parties.

Caste system among Hindus

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The Indian caste system, prevalent also among local Muslims and Christians, exhibits some differences from those of other countries. Elsewhere, the separation between one group and the other is usually along racial lines. Within India, that is not so. Nor is there any discernable dichotomy (white/black or high/low) because the caste system forms a continuum that defies such ready definition. Lower-caste people live in conditions of great poverty and social disadvantage, though efforts by the Indian government to emancipate the lower castes with affirmative action have achieved some success in recent years.

The concept of 'upper' and 'lower' caste is therefore a matter of social standing and assimilation rather than anything based on wealth or influence . Even in this age, some castes do not allow other caste members, whom they consider to be "lower" to touch them, and would have washed themselves or their possessions if they had been touched by someone from a "lower" caste . In some parts of India, there was the practice of defining the physical distance one should keep from persons of another caste. As a result of this, children who attended a school where children of lower castes were present had to bathe in running water before returning home. In some parts of the world, as well as in India, such discrimination still exists, though it is punishable by law and unconstitutional in India. The Indian constitution was drafted by Ambedkar, himself of low-caste origins, who is regarded as an emancipator of the Dalits.

Loss of caste could occur if individuals strayed from the norms of behavior expected of them; for instance, if one married a person belonging to another caste. Despite the marketing efforts of Christian proselytizers, the fact is that converts rarely achieve emancipation from the caste system to gain an equal social standing with people of privilege. Even among converts, matrimony between members of different castes is rare, although it is not unknown.

A detailed analysis of the caste system, Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development in India was presented by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar in his doctoral paper at the Columbia University.

Mythical Origin of Castes

In the Puranas, it is said that the creator of the universe, Lord Brahma, created some humans from his mouth — they became reciters of the Veda and became the Brahmins. Then he created other humans from his arms, they became the Kshatriyas, bearers of arms, the warrior and ruling class. Brahma then created some from his abdomen, who became the Vaishyas or merchants. Finally, Brahma created humans from his feet. They served the other castes even as the feet serve the man; they came to become the Sudras (manual labourers and artisans). Thus, the whole universe is held to be one organic entity, the body of the almighty.

Many scholars have the opinion that the caste system was not rigid in early vedic times. They aver that change of one's caste could be effected with relative ease, by changing ones vocation and gaining an education. Others however feel that caste began as a form of racism and interpret the meaning of the word 'sudra' to mean 'dark' or 'black'.

Jāti

Major castes were subdivided into hundreds of sub-castes or jātis. Castes were based on occupation . Endogamous marriage (including polyandry) and other association within caste was strongly enforced.

• Sub-castes within a group of jat ("birth" as opposed to varna) were called jāti
• Jāti members were allowed to marry only with their jāti .
• People were born into their jāti; this status couldn't be changed, unless through marriage or under rare circumstances.
• Each jāti was part of a local system of interdependence with other groups, involving occupational specialization, and was linked in complex ways with networks that stretched across regions.

For example, in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, states of South India, castes based on occupation would include: asari (carpenters), thattar (goldsmiths), muusaari (coppersmiths), karuvar (ironsmiths), ambattar (clothes-washers), parayar (cobblers) and so on.

Modern developments

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With rapid urbanization and education of India's largely rural, agrarian population, the significance of caste has diminished, except in government mediated interventions in the form of quotas and reservations in education, jobs and promotions for the socially "lower", but numerous and thus politically important, castes.

The caste system and its attendant practices have been outlawed and declared punishable offenses, but these laws are difficult to implement. There are occasional violations of human rights of Dalits (outcastes - also called untouchables) by the higher castes, including forcing Dalits into their traditional professions. Dalits in rural areas have often been victimized by other castes, many a times themselves politically powerful "Shudras"or "lower castes". The government of India provides freeships, scholarships, reservations for government jobs and of university seats in programs of higher education (undergraduate and above) for people hailing from Scheduled castes, Scheduled tribes and Other Backward Castes; see Reservation in India. Upper caste Hindus and several secular elements counter-argue that unmeritorious Dalits, especially those from the well off "Creamy Layer" are exploiting this constitutionally obligatory discrimination to their unfair advantage and meritorious candidates are being sidelined. The site Dalitstan (presently taken down), once banned by the Indian government, is an example of anti-Brahmin and anti-Hindu rhetoric by Dalit extremists, allegedly supported by Christian missions .

Caste system among Indian Christians

Main article: Caste System among Indian Christians

Converts to Christianity have retained the old caste practices. In particular, Dalit Christians are regarded as an undercaste by upper caste Christian clergy and nuns and are discriminated against in society.

Caste System in Pakistan

The same caste system practiced by Indian Muslims is practiced in Pakistan, with divisions into tribes such as the Pushtun, Pathan, as well as divisions by religious denomination such as Ahmadiyya, Mojahir etc.Pogroms against Ahmadiyya Muslims and Mojahir Muslims in Pakistan have occurred. Gang-rapes of lower caste women such as Mukhtaran Mai by upper caste men have also occurred in Pakistan. The ethnic Balochi in Pakistan are often discriminated against by the Punjabi and Sindhi people in Pakistan, leading to an armed separatist insurgency in Balochistan formerly led by the late Nawab Akbar Bugti.

The social stratification among Muslims in the "Swat" area of North Pakistan has been meaningfully compared to the Caste system in India. The society is rigidly divided into subgroups where each Quom is assigned a profession. Different Quoms are not permitted to intermarry or live in the same community. These Muslims practice a ritual-based system of social stratification. The Quoms who deal with human emissions are ranked the lowest. Leach, Edmund Ronald (November 24, 1971). Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan (Pg 113). Cambridge University Press.

The Caste system in Pakistan creates sectarian divides and strong issues along similar lines to those divides seen in India. Lower castes are often severely persecuted by the upper castes. Lower castes are denied privileges in many communities and violence is committed against them. A particularly infamous example of such incidents is that of Mukhtaran Mai in Pakistan, a low caste woman who was gang raped by upper caste men. In addition, educated Pakistani women from the lower castes are often persecuted by the higher castes for attempting to break the shackles of the restrictive system (that traditionally denied education to the lower castes, particularly the women). A recent example of this is the case of Ghazala Shaheen, a low caste Muslim woman in Pakistan who, in addition to getting a higher education, had an uncle who eloped with a woman of a high caste family. She was accosted and gang-raped by the upper-caste family. The chances of any legal action are low due to the Pakistani Government's inability to repeal the Huddood ordinance .

Nepalese caste system

The Nepalese caste system resembles that of the Indian Jāti system with numerous Jāti divisions with a Varna system superimposed.

Sri Lankan caste system

The Sri Lankan system resembles the South Indian Jāti system with numerous Jāti divisions without a Varna system superimposition. Furthermore, the Sri Lankan Tamils see themselves as superior to Tamils of Indian background.

Balinese caste system

The Balinese caste system resembles the Indian system with a four-fold division of society. Shudras make up 97% of the society.

Castes in Yemen

In Yemen there exists a caste like system that keeps Al-Akhdam social group as the perennial manual workers for the society through practices that mirror untouchability. The al-Akhdam (literally "servants" with Khadem as plural) is the lowest rung in the Yemeni caste system and by far the poorest. According to official estimates in Yemen, the total number of al-Akhdam countywide is in the neighbourhood of 500,000, some 100,000 of which live in the outskirts of the capital Sana’a. The remainder are dispersed mainly in and around the cities of Aden, Taiz, Lahj, Abyan, Hodeidah and Mukalla.

Origins

The Khadem are not members of the three tribes (Bedouin, Berber, and Rif) that comprise mainstream Arab society.They are believed to be of Ethiopian ancestry. Some sociologists theorize that the al-Akhdham are descendants of Ethiopian soldiers who had occupied Yemen in the 5th century but were driven out in the 6th century. According to this theory the al-Akhdham are descended from the soldiers who stayed behind and were forced into menial labor as a punitive measure.

Discrimination

Marginalized and shunned by mainstream society, its members live in small shanty towns, mostly in big cities, including the capital, Sana’a. They live in segregated communities with poor housing conditions and are regarded as "racially inferior". As a result of their low position in society, very few children in the Khadem community are enrolled in school and often have little choice but to beg for money and intoxicate themselves with crushed glass. A traditional Arabic saying in the region goes: “Clean your plate if it is touched by a dog, but break it if it’s touched by a Khadem" . Though conditions have improved somewhat over the past few years, the Khadem are still stereotyped by mainstream Yemenese society, considering them lowly, dirty,ill-mannered and immoral.

Many NGO's and charitable organizations from other countries such as CARE International are working towards their emancipation. The Yemenese government denies that there is any discrimination against the Khadem.

Castes in Africa

Countries in Africa who have societies with caste systems within their borders include Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Niger, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Algeria, Nigeria, Chad, Ethiopia and Somalia.

The Osu caste system in Nigeria and southern Cameroon are derived from indegenous religious beliefs and discriminate against the "Osus" people as "owned by deities" and outcastes.

Caste systems in Somalia mandate non-Arab descended "outcastes" such as Midgan-Madhiban, Yibir, Tumal and other groups deemed to be impure and are ostracized from society. Similarly, the Mande societies in Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Sierra leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast and Ghana have caste systems that divide society by occupation and ethnic ties.The Mande caste system regards the "Jonow" slave castes as inferior. Similarly, the Wolof caste system in Senegal is divided into three main groups, the Geer (freeborn/nobles), jaam (slaves and slave descendents) and the outcasted neeno (people of caste).

Other caste systems in Africa include the Borana caste system of NE Kenya with the Watta as the lowest caste, the "Ubuhake" castes in Rwanda and Burundi, and the "Hutu" undercastes in Rwanda who committed genocide on the "Tutsi" overlords in the now infamous Rwandan Genocide.

Castes in Latin America

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The word "Caste" is Portuguese in origin, from the word Casta. Many Latin American countries have caste systems based on classification by race and inter-ethnic marriages. The caste system was imposed during colonial rule by the Spanish. While many Latin American countries have rendered the system officially illegal through legislation, societal prejudices against lower castes still remain.

Castes in Japan

Burakumin (部落民: buraku, community or hamlet + min, people), or hisabetsu buraku (被差別部落 "discriminated communities / discriminated hamlets") are a Japanese social minority group. The burakumin are one of the main minority groups in Japan, along with the Ainu of Hokkaido and residents of Korean and Chinese descent.

Japan has historically subscribed to a feudal caste system. While modern law has officially abolished the caste hierarchy, there are reports of discrimination against the Buraku or Burakumin undercastes, historically referred to by the insulting term "Eta". Studies comparing the caste systems in India and Japan have been performed, with similar discriminations against the Burakumin as the Dalits. The Burakumin are regarded as "ostracized".

Discrimination against the Burakumin

While nearly all Japanese Buddhist sects have discriminated against the burakumin, the case of the Jōdo Shinshu Honganji Sect is a particularly notable one. The imperial state also forced all people to belong to a specific Buddhist temple according to the formula:

"the imperial family is in Tendai, the peerage is in Shingon, the nobility is in Jōdo (Honen's followers), the Samurai is in Zen, the beggar is in Nichiren, and Shin Buddhists (Shinran's followers) are at the bottom." (Kasahara 1996)

In consequence the Honganji, which under Rennyo's leadership had defiantly accepted the derogatory label of 'the dirty sect' (see Rennyo's letters known as the Ofumi / Gobunsho) now began to discriminate against its own burakumin members as it jostled for political and social status.

The fact of religious discrimination against the burakumin was commonly denied until the late twentieth century. For example, in 1979 the Director-General of the Soto Sect of Buddhism made a speech at the "3rd World Conference on Religion and Peace" claiming that there was no longer any discrimination against burakumin in Japan.

Finally in 1969 the Honganji began to recognise its mistreatment of burakumin and appears to be beginning to address the problem.

Burakumin rights movement

As early as 1922, leaders of the hisabetsu buraku organized a movement, the "Levelers Association of Japan" (Suiheisha), to advance their rights. The Declaration of the Suiheisha encouraged the Burakumin to unite in resistance to discrimination, and sought to frame a positive identity for the victims of discrimination, insisting that the time had come to be "proud of being eta.The Levelers Association remained active until the late 1930s.

After World War II, the National Committee for Burakumin Liberation was founded, changing its name to the Buraku Liberation League (Buraku Kaihou Doumei) in the 1950s. The league, with the support of the socialist and communist parties, pressured the government into making important concessions in the late 1960s and 1970s. One concession was the passing of the Special Measures Law for Assimilation Projects, which provided financial aid for the discriminated communities.

Even into the early 1990s, however, discussion of the 'liberation' of these discriminated communities, or even their existence, was taboo in public discussion. In the 1960s, the Sayama incident (狭山事件), which involved a murder conviction of a member of the discriminated communities based on circumstantial evidence, focused public attention on the problems of the group. In the 1980s, some educators and local governments, particularly in areas with relatively large hisabetsu buraku populations, began special education programs, which they hoped would encourage greater educational and economic success for young members of the group and decrease the discrimination they faced.

Branches of burakumin rights groups exist today in all parts of Japan except for Hokkaido and Okinawa.

"Human Rights Promotion Centers" (人権啓発センター) have been set up across the country by prefectural governments and local authorities; these, in addition to promoting burakumin rights, campaign on behalf of a wide range of groups such as women, the disabled, ethnic minorities, foreign residents and released prisoners. (The term "human rights" (人権 jinken) usually has a different meaning in Japan as it does in the English speaking world. Where in English the term is most often used in reference to protecting people against violations by, for example, the criminal justice system or an oppressive regime, in Japan it is most often used in reference to equality and discrimination issues.)

The Buraku Liberation League is considered one of the most militant among burakumin's rights groups. Their legality is still disputed, but to this date the authorities have mostly turned a blind eye to them except in the more extreme cases.

The other major buraku activist group is the All Japan Federation of Buraku Liberation Movements (全国部落解放運動連合会 zenkoku buraku kaihō undō rengōkai, or Zenkairen), affiliated to the Japanese Communist Party(JCP), formed by ex-BLL activists.

See also

• Social stratification
• Feudal society
• Class society
• Reservations in India
• Forward Castes
• Backward-caste Hindu Saints
• Backward-caste Hindu Warriors
• Caste system
• Varna

Notes

1. American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 2000, entry caste.
2. "Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development in India". Retrieved 2006-07-31.
3. Leach, Edmund Ronald (November 24, 1971). Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan (Pg 113). Cambridge University Press.
4. Pakistani graduate raped to punish her low-caste family The Sunday Times - September 24, 2006
5. ^ Akhdam: Ongoing suffering for lost identity Yemen Mirror
6. ^ YEMEN: Akhdam people suffer history of discrimination,irinnews.org
7. ^ Caste In Yemen by Marguerite Abadjian,Countercurrents.org archive of The Baltimore Sun
8. Yemen Times
9. William H. Newell (1961). "The Comparative Study of Caste in India and Japan". Asian Survey. 1 (10): 3–10. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

References

• Spectres of Agrarian Territory by David Ludden December 11, 2001
• Early Evidence for Caste in South India, p. 467-492 in Dimensions of Social Life: Essays in honor of David G. Mandelbaum, Edited by Paul Hockings and Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, New York, Amsterdam, 1987.

External links

Sites

• http://www.idsn.org International Dalit Solidarity Network
• http://www.dalits.org National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights
• http://www.dalits.nl Dalit Network Netherlands
• Anti-Caste Information Page On caste, communalism, and class struggle.
• Caste & the Tamil Nation - Brahmins, Non Brahmins & Dalits

Articles

• Rights Activists and Rights Violations: the Burakumin case in Japan
• Caste, Ethnicity and Nationality:Japan Finds Plenty of Space for Discrimination
• The Burakumin The Complicity of Japanese Buddhism in Oppression and an Opportunity for Liberation
• YEMEN: Akhdam people suffer history of discriminationIRIN News.org
• Caste In Yemen by Marguerite Abadjian (Archive of the Baltimore Sun)
• India Together on Caste
• Rankism: A Social Disorder
• Varna Ashram and Hindu Scriptures (pdf)
• Muslims and Caste
• On the Social Function of Caste: A Reply to Jared Diamond
• On discrimination against untouchable survivors of the South Asian tsunami
• Personal family history of an untouchable writer from Andhra
• New Internationalist, July 2005, "combating Caste"
• The Caste System in India
• Jati system in India
• Articles on Caste by Koenraad Elst: Caste in India, Buddhism and Caste, Indian tribals and Caste, Physical anthropology and Caste, Etymology of Varna
• Is Caste System Intrinsic to Hinduism?
• Caste & the Tamil Nation - Brahmins, Non Brahmins & Dalits
• Hindu Caste System & Hinduism: Vedic vocations (Hindu castes) were not related to heredity (birth)
• ISKCON view of caste and behavior
• These documented Results of 4-Varn system can make you Proud of your Hindu heritage
• News on caste, communalism, and class struggle in South Asia from the Anti-Caste Information Page

• Caste
• Sociology
• Social divisions