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| |caption = Interior of the Al Karaouine Mosque and university; note the similarity of the architecture to the ] الحمراء | |caption = Interior of the Al Karaouine Mosque and university; note the similarity of the architecture to the ] الحمراء | ||
| |motto = | |motto = | ||
| |established = 859 as madrasa<ref name=oxford/><ref name="founding"/> | |||
| ⚫ | | |
||
| <br>1947<ref name="Shillington 2005, 1025"/> as university | |||
| |type = current: ]<br /> | |type = current: ]<br /> | ||
| former: General knowledge | former: General knowledge | ||
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| |footnotes = | |footnotes = | ||
| }} | }} | ||
| The '''University of Al-Karaouine''' or '''Al-Qarawiyyin''' ({{Lang-ar|جامعة القرويين}}) (other transliterations of the name include Qarawiyin, Kairouyine, Kairaouine, Qairawiyin, Qaraouyine, Quaraouiyine, Quarawin, and Qaraouiyn) is the first ] in the world. The university is located in ], ] and was founded in 859.<ref name=EB/><ref name="Najm">Joseph, S, and Najmabadi, A. '' Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures: Economics, education, mobility, and space''. Brill, 2003, p. 314.</ref><ref name="Swart">Swartley, Keith. ''Encountering the World of Islam''. Authentic, 2005, p. 74.</ref><ref name="Kettani">Kettani, M. Ali. ''Engineering Education in the Arab World''. Middle East Journal, 1974, 28(4):441.</ref> It has been and continues to be one of the leading spiritual and educational centers of the ]. | |||
| ⚫ | The '''University of Al-Karaouine''' or '''Al-Qarawiyyin''' ({{Lang-ar|جامعة القرويين}}) (other transliterations of the name include Qarawiyin, Kairouyine, Kairaouine, Qairawiyin, Qaraouyine, Quaraouiyine, Quarawin, and Qaraouiyn) is a ] located in ], ] which was established in 1947.<ref name="Shillington 2005, 1025"/> Its origins date back to 859, when it was founded as a mosque school or ].<ref name=oxford>The Report: Morocco 2009 - Page 252 Oxford Business Group "... yet for many Morocco's cultural, artistic and spiritual capital remains Fez. The best-preserved ... School has been in session at Karaouine University since 859, making it the world's oldest continuously operating university. "</ref><ref name="founding">{{cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |authorlink=John L. Esposito |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |date= |year=2003 |month= |publisher=Oxford University Press |location= |language= |isbn=0-1951-2559-2 |oclc= |doi= |id= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=|page=328 }}</ref> It has been and continues to be one of the leading spiritual and educational centers of the ]. | ||
| The Al-Karaouine played a leading role in the cultural and academic relations between the ] and ] in the ]. The cartographer ] (d. 1166), whose maps aided ] in the ] is said to have lived in Fes for some time, suggesting that he may have worked or studied at Al Karaouine. The University has produced numerous scholars who have strongly influenced the intellectual and academic history of the Muslim and Jewish worlds. Among these are ] (d. 1321), ] (d. 1336), ] (d. 1015), a leading theorist of the ] school of ], ], a renowned traveler and writer, and ]. | |||
| == Mosque == | |||
| The Al Karaouine institution is considered by the ],<ref>''The Guinness Book Of Records'', Published 1998, ISBN 0-553-57895-2, P.242</ref> the ]<ref></ref> and many historians<ref name=oxford /><ref name="founding" /><ref name="Najm" /><ref name="Swart" /><ref name="Kettani" /><ref>''Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World'', Publisher: Marshall Cavendish, 2010 p.161</ref><ref>''Hidden Giants'', 2nd Edition, by Sethanne Howard, Publisher: Lulu.com 2008 p.60</ref><ref>''Civilization: The West and the Rest'' by Niall Ferguson, Publisher: Allen Lane 2011 - ISBN 978-1-84614-273-4</ref><ref>''The marketisation of higher education and the student as consumer'' by Mike Molesworth & Richard Scullion, Publisher: Taylor & Francis 2010 p.26</ref><ref>''Frommer's Morocco'' by Darren Humphrys, Publisher: John Wiley & Sons 2010 p.223</ref> as the ] ]-granting ] in the world. However, this claim is contested by other historians who consider that medieval universities in the Islamic world and ] followed very different historical trajectories until the former were expanded to the latter in ],<ref>George Makdisi: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", ''Studia Islamica'', No. 32 (1970), pp. 255-264 (264): {{quote|Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the middle ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.}}</ref> and the certificate delivered in non-European universities deviated in concept and procedure from the medieval ] out of which ] evolved.<ref name="Makdisi Scholasticism">{{citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 (176)|doi=10.2307/604423}}</ref><ref>Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R. "Madrasa." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman , Th. Bianquis , C.E. Bosworth , E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2010, retrieved 20/03/2010</ref><ref>Jomier, J. "al- Azhar (al-Ḏj̲āmiʿ al-Azhar)." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman , Th. Bianquis , C.E. Bosworth , E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2010, retrieved 20/03/2010</ref> | |||
| ⚫ | Successive dynasties expanded the Al Karaouine mosque until it became the largest in ], with a capacity of more than 20,000 worshipers. Compared with the great mosques of ] or ], the design is austere. The columns and arches are plain white; the floors are covered in reed mats, not lush carpets. Yet the seemingly endless forest of arches creates a sense of infinite majesty and intimate privacy, while the simplicity of the design complements the finely decorated niches, pulpit and outer courtyard, with its superb tiles, plasterwork, woodcarvings and paintings. | ||
| ⚫ | The present form of the mosque is the result of a long historical evolution over the course of more than 1,000 years. Originally the mosque was about 30 meters long with a courtyard and four transverse aisles. The first expansion was undertaken in 956, by ] ], ]. The prayer hall was extended and the ] was relocated, taking on a square form that served as a model for countless North African ]s. At this time it became a tradition that other mosques of Fes would make the call to prayer only after they heard Al Karaouine. In the minaret of the Al-Karaouine mosque there is a special room, the ], where the times of prayer are established. | ||
| In 1947, it was reorganized to become a ].<ref name="Shillington 2005, 1025"/> | |||
| ⚫ | The most extensive reconstruction was carried out in 1135 under the patronage of the ] ruler sultan ] who ordered the extension of the mosque from 18 to 21 aisles, expanding the structure to more than 3,000 square meters. The mosque acquired its present appearance at this time, featuring horseshoe arches and ijmiz frames decorated with beautiful geometrical and floral Andalusian art, bordered with ]. | ||
| ⚫ | In the 16th century, the ] restored the mosque, adding two patios to the northern and southern ends of the courtyard. | ||
| == History == | == History == | ||
| === |
=== Madrasa === | ||
| The Al-Karaouine is part of a ], founded in 859 by ]a, the daughter of a wealthy merchant named Mohammed Al-Fihri. The Al-Fihri family had migrated from ] (hence the name of the mosque), ] to ] in the early 9th century, joining a community of other migrants from Kairouan who had settled in a western district of the city. Fatima and her sister Mariam, both of whom were well educated, inherited a large amount of money from their father. Fatima vowed to spend her entire inheritance on the construction of a ] suitable for her community.<ref>see R. Saoud article on http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=447.</ref> | The Al-Karaouine is part of a ], founded in 859 by ]a, the daughter of a wealthy merchant named Mohammed Al-Fihri. The Al-Fihri family had migrated from ] (hence the name of the mosque), ] to ] in the early 9th century, joining a community of other migrants from Kairouan who had settled in a western district of the city. Fatima and her sister Mariam, both of whom were well educated, inherited a large amount of money from their father. Fatima vowed to spend her entire inheritance on the construction of a ] suitable for her community.<ref>see R. Saoud article on http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=447.</ref> | ||
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| Al-Karaouine gained the patronage of politically powerful ]s. It compiled a large selection of manuscripts that were kept at a library founded by the ] Sultan ] in 1349. Among the most precious manuscripts currently housed in the library are volumes from the famous '']'' of ] written on gazelle ], the ''Sirat Ibn Ishaq'', a copy of the Qur'an given by Sultan ] in 1602, and the original copy of ]'s book ''Al-'Ibar''.<ref name="muslimheritage.com">see R. Saoud article on http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=447,</ref> Among the subjects taught, alongside the ] and ] (Islamic jurisprudence), are ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. | Al-Karaouine gained the patronage of politically powerful ]s. It compiled a large selection of manuscripts that were kept at a library founded by the ] Sultan ] in 1349. Among the most precious manuscripts currently housed in the library are volumes from the famous '']'' of ] written on gazelle ], the ''Sirat Ibn Ishaq'', a copy of the Qur'an given by Sultan ] in 1602, and the original copy of ]'s book ''Al-'Ibar''.<ref name="muslimheritage.com">see R. Saoud article on http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=447,</ref> Among the subjects taught, alongside the ] and ] (Islamic jurisprudence), are ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. | ||
| The cartographer ] (d. 1166), whose maps aided ] in the ] is said to have lived in Fes for some time, suggesting that he may have worked or studied at Al Karaouine. The madrasa has produced numerous scholars who have strongly influenced the intellectual and academic history of the Muslim and Jewish worlds. Among these are ] (d. 1321), ] (d. 1336), ] (d. 1015), a leading theorist of the ] school of ], ], a renowned traveler and writer, and ]. Pioneer scholars such as ] (]), (1135–1204),<ref>Kenneth Seeskin, ''The Cambridge companion to Maimonides'', Cambridge University Press 2005, p. 18, He is said to have received "formal medical training while residing in Fez."</ref> ] (d.1166 AD), ] (1165-1240 AD), ] (1332-1395 AD), ], ] (Alpetragius), ], and ] were all connected with the madrasa either as students or lecturers. Among Christian scholars visiting Al-Karaouine were the ] ] and the ] ].<ref name="muslimheritage.com"/> | |||
| === |
=== University === | ||
| ⚫ | Al-Karaouine became a ] in 1947, by granting academic degrees.<ref name="Shillington 2005, 1025">Kevin Shillington: "Encyclopedia of African history", Vol. 1, New York: Taylor & Francis Group, 2005, ISBN 1579582451, p.1025</ref> | ||
| {{Disputed-section|date=December 2011}} | |||
| ⚫ | Al-Karaouine became a ] in 1947, by granting academic degrees.<ref name="Shillington 2005, 1025">Kevin Shillington: "Encyclopedia of African history", Vol. 1, New York: Taylor & Francis Group, 2005, ISBN |
||
| In 1975, the General Studies were transferred to the newly founded ] ; Al-Karaouine kept the Islamic and theological courses of studies.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} | In 1975, the General Studies were transferred to the newly founded ] ; Al-Karaouine kept the Islamic and theological courses of studies.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} | ||
| == |
=== Name usage === | ||
| Although Al-Qarawiyyin was founded and known by the Arabs as a ] ({{lang-ar|مدرسة}}), a Muslim ], during the longest time of its existence, some modern authors and texts refer to it by the ] term "]".<ref>''The Guinness Book Of Records'', Published 1998, ISBN 0-553-57895-2, P.242; UNESCO: ; ''Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World'', Publisher: Marshall Cavendish, 2010 p.161</ref> Madrasa and university are, however, historically distinct institutions.<ref>] has an entry on "madrasa" but notably lacks one for a Muslim "university" (Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R. "Madrasa." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman , Th. Bianquis , C.E. Bosworth , E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2010, retrieved 21/03/2010)</ref> The university (from ] ''universitas''), has been historically the institution of higher learning of ], peculiar to ] (]),<ref>Nuria Sanz, Sjur Bergan (eds.): ''The Heritage of European Universities'', Council of Europe, 2002, ISBN 92-871-4960-7, p. 119: {{quote|In many respects, if there is any institution that Europe can justifiably claim as one of its own inventions, it is the university. As proof thereof and without wishing here to recount the whole history of the birth of universities, it will suffice to describe briefly how the invention of universities took the form of a polycentric process of specifically European origin.}}</ref><ref>Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): ''A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. XIX–XX: {{quote|The university is a European institution; indeed, it is the European institution par excellence. There are various reasons for this assertion. As a community of teachers and taught, accorded certain rights, such as administrative autonomy and the determination and realization of curricula (courses of study) and of the objectives of research as well as the award of publicly recognized degrees, it is a creation of medieval Europe, which was the Europe of papal Christianity...No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelor's degree, the licentiate, the master's degree, and the doctorate – have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world.}}</ref> and only in the course of ] programmes in recent times it was adopted outside of the Western world, including the ].<ref>George Makdisi: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", ''Studia Islamica'', No. 32 (1970), pp. 255-264 (264): {{quote|Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the Middle Ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.}}</ref> | |||
| ⚫ | Successive dynasties expanded the Al Karaouine mosque until it became the largest in ], with a capacity of more than 20,000 worshipers. Compared with the great mosques of ] or ], the design is austere. The columns and arches are plain white; the floors are covered in reed mats, not lush carpets. Yet the seemingly endless forest of arches creates a sense of infinite majesty and intimate privacy, while the simplicity of the design complements the finely decorated niches, pulpit and outer courtyard, with its superb tiles, plasterwork, woodcarvings and paintings. | ||
| ⚫ | The present form of the mosque is the result of a long historical evolution over the course of more than 1,000 years. Originally the mosque was about 30 meters long with a courtyard and four transverse aisles. The first expansion was undertaken in 956, by ] ], ]. The prayer hall was extended and the ] was relocated, taking on a square form that served as a model for countless North African ]s. At this time it became a tradition that other mosques of Fes would make the call to prayer only after they heard Al Karaouine. In the minaret of the Al-Karaouine mosque there is a special room, the ], where the times of prayer are established. | ||
| ⚫ | The most extensive reconstruction was carried out in 1135 under the patronage of the ] ruler sultan ] who ordered the extension of the mosque from 18 to 21 aisles, expanding the structure to more than 3,000 square meters. The mosque acquired its present appearance at this time, featuring horseshoe arches and ijmiz frames decorated with beautiful geometrical and floral Andalusian art, bordered with ]. | ||
| ⚫ | In the 16th century, the ] restored the mosque, adding two patios to the northern and southern ends of the courtyard. | ||
| ==Famous alumni== | == Famous alumni == | ||
| *] | * ] | ||
| *] | * ] | ||
| *] | * ] | ||
| *] | * ] | ||
| *] | * ] | ||
| {{commons category|Al-Qarawiyyin Morocco}} | {{commons category|Al-Qarawiyyin Morocco}} | ||
| Line 76: | Line 74: | ||
| == See also == | == See also == | ||
| {{Portal|Morocco}} | {{Portal|Morocco}} | ||
| *] (the 'clock-house' of Al-Karaouine) | * ] (the 'clock-house' of Al-Karaouine) | ||
| *] | * ] | ||
| ⚫ | * ] | ||
| *] | |||
| ⚫ | *] | ||
| ==External links== | == External links == | ||
| * ]: Fez 2007 | * ]: Fez 2007 | ||
| * (French) | * (French) | ||
| * (Urdu) | * (Urdu) | ||
| ==References and notes== | == References and notes == | ||
| {{ |
{{Reflist}} | ||
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Karaouine, University of al}} | {{DEFAULTSORT:Karaouine, University of al}} | ||
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Revision as of 20:41, 24 July 2012
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| 'جامعة القرويين Jāmi`at al-Qarawīīn | |
 Interior of the Al Karaouine Mosque and university; note the similarity of the architecture to the Alhambra الحمراء | |
| Type | current: Islamic former: General knowledge |
|---|---|
| Established | 859 as madrasa
1947 as university |
| Affiliation | Sunni |
| Location | Fes, Morocco |
| Campus | Urban |
The University of Al-Karaouine or Al-Qarawiyyin (Template:Lang-ar) (other transliterations of the name include Qarawiyin, Kairouyine, Kairaouine, Qairawiyin, Qaraouyine, Quaraouiyine, Quarawin, and Qaraouiyn) is a university located in Fes, Morocco which was established in 1947. Its origins date back to 859, when it was founded as a mosque school or madrasa. It has been and continues to be one of the leading spiritual and educational centers of the Muslim world.
Mosque
Successive dynasties expanded the Al Karaouine mosque until it became the largest in North Africa, with a capacity of more than 20,000 worshipers. Compared with the great mosques of Isfahan or Istanbul, the design is austere. The columns and arches are plain white; the floors are covered in reed mats, not lush carpets. Yet the seemingly endless forest of arches creates a sense of infinite majesty and intimate privacy, while the simplicity of the design complements the finely decorated niches, pulpit and outer courtyard, with its superb tiles, plasterwork, woodcarvings and paintings.
The present form of the mosque is the result of a long historical evolution over the course of more than 1,000 years. Originally the mosque was about 30 meters long with a courtyard and four transverse aisles. The first expansion was undertaken in 956, by Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba, Abd-ar-Rahman III. The prayer hall was extended and the minaret was relocated, taking on a square form that served as a model for countless North African minarets. At this time it became a tradition that other mosques of Fes would make the call to prayer only after they heard Al Karaouine. In the minaret of the Al-Karaouine mosque there is a special room, the Dar al-Muwaqqit, where the times of prayer are established.
The most extensive reconstruction was carried out in 1135 under the patronage of the Almoravid ruler sultan Ali Ibn Yusuf who ordered the extension of the mosque from 18 to 21 aisles, expanding the structure to more than 3,000 square meters. The mosque acquired its present appearance at this time, featuring horseshoe arches and ijmiz frames decorated with beautiful geometrical and floral Andalusian art, bordered with Kufic calligraphy.
In the 16th century, the Saadis restored the mosque, adding two patios to the northern and southern ends of the courtyard.
History
Madrasa
The Al-Karaouine is part of a mosque, founded in 859 by Fatima al-Fihria, the daughter of a wealthy merchant named Mohammed Al-Fihri. The Al-Fihri family had migrated from Kairouan (hence the name of the mosque), Tunisia to Fes in the early 9th century, joining a community of other migrants from Kairouan who had settled in a western district of the city. Fatima and her sister Mariam, both of whom were well educated, inherited a large amount of money from their father. Fatima vowed to spend her entire inheritance on the construction of a mosque suitable for her community.
In addition to a place for worship, the mosque soon developed into a place for religious instruction and political discussion, gradually extending its education to a broad range of subjects, particularly the natural sciences.
Al-Karaouine gained the patronage of politically powerful sultans. It compiled a large selection of manuscripts that were kept at a library founded by the Marinid Sultan Abu Inan Faris in 1349. Among the most precious manuscripts currently housed in the library are volumes from the famous Al-Muwatta of Malik written on gazelle parchment, the Sirat Ibn Ishaq, a copy of the Qur'an given by Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur in 1602, and the original copy of Ibn Khaldun's book Al-'Ibar. Among the subjects taught, alongside the Qur'an and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), are grammar, rhetoric, logic, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, history, geography and music.
The cartographer Mohammed al-Idrisi (d. 1166), whose maps aided European exploration in the Renaissance is said to have lived in Fes for some time, suggesting that he may have worked or studied at Al Karaouine. The madrasa has produced numerous scholars who have strongly influenced the intellectual and academic history of the Muslim and Jewish worlds. Among these are Ibn Rushayd al-Sabti (d. 1321), Mohammed Ibn al-Hajj al-Abdari al-Fasi (d. 1336), Abu Imran al-Fasi (d. 1015), a leading theorist of the Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, Leo Africanus, a renowned traveler and writer, and Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon. Pioneer scholars such as Ibn Maimun (Maimonides), (1135–1204), Al-Idrissi (d.1166 AD), Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240 AD), Ibn Khaldun (1332-1395 AD), Ibn al-Khatib, Al-Bitruji (Alpetragius), Ibn Hirzihim, and Al-Wazzan were all connected with the madrasa either as students or lecturers. Among Christian scholars visiting Al-Karaouine were the Belgian Nicolas Cleynaerts and the Dutchman Golius.
University
Al-Karaouine became a university in 1947, by granting academic degrees.
In 1975, the General Studies were transferred to the newly founded Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University ; Al-Karaouine kept the Islamic and theological courses of studies.
Name usage
Although Al-Qarawiyyin was founded and known by the Arabs as a madrasah (Template:Lang-ar), a Muslim mosque school, during the longest time of its existence, some modern authors and texts refer to it by the anachronistic term "university". Madrasa and university are, however, historically distinct institutions. The university (from Latin universitas), has been historically the institution of higher learning of Christendom, peculiar to medieval Europe (medieval university), and only in the course of modernization programmes in recent times it was adopted outside of the Western world, including the Islamic world.
Famous alumni
See also
- Dar al-Muwaqqit (the 'clock-house' of Al-Karaouine)
- List of universities in Morocco
- Education in Morocco
External links
- ISESCO: Fez 2007
- UNIVERSITE QUARAOUIYINE - Fes (French)
- Voice of America Article (Urdu)
References and notes
- ^ The Report: Morocco 2009 - Page 252 Oxford Business Group "... yet for many Morocco's cultural, artistic and spiritual capital remains Fez. The best-preserved ... School has been in session at Karaouine University since 859, making it the world's oldest continuously operating university. "
- ^ Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 328. ISBN 0-1951-2559-2.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters:|origmonth=,|month=,|chapterurl=,|origdate=, and|coauthors=(help) - ^ Kevin Shillington: "Encyclopedia of African history", Vol. 1, New York: Taylor & Francis Group, 2005, ISBN 1579582451, p.1025
- see R. Saoud article on http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=447.
- ^ see R. Saoud article on http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=447,
- Kenneth Seeskin, The Cambridge companion to Maimonides, Cambridge University Press 2005, p. 18, He is said to have received "formal medical training while residing in Fez."
- The Guinness Book Of Records, Published 1998, ISBN 0-553-57895-2, P.242; UNESCO: ; Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World, Publisher: Marshall Cavendish, 2010 p.161
- Encyclopedia of Islam has an entry on "madrasa" but notably lacks one for a Muslim "university" (Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R. "Madrasa." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman , Th. Bianquis , C.E. Bosworth , E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2010, retrieved 21/03/2010)
- Nuria Sanz, Sjur Bergan (eds.): The Heritage of European Universities, Council of Europe, 2002, ISBN 92-871-4960-7, p. 119:
In many respects, if there is any institution that Europe can justifiably claim as one of its own inventions, it is the university. As proof thereof and without wishing here to recount the whole history of the birth of universities, it will suffice to describe briefly how the invention of universities took the form of a polycentric process of specifically European origin.
- Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. XIX–XX:
The university is a European institution; indeed, it is the European institution par excellence. There are various reasons for this assertion. As a community of teachers and taught, accorded certain rights, such as administrative autonomy and the determination and realization of curricula (courses of study) and of the objectives of research as well as the award of publicly recognized degrees, it is a creation of medieval Europe, which was the Europe of papal Christianity...No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelor's degree, the licentiate, the master's degree, and the doctorate – have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world.
- George Makdisi: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", Studia Islamica, No. 32 (1970), pp. 255-264 (264):
Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the Middle Ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.
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