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{{Short description|Medieval Bulgarian state (1185–1396)}}
{{Infobox former country
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
|native_name = Второ българско царство<br>''Vtorо Bălgarskо Tsartsvo''
{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = Second Bulgarian Empire
| native_name = Ц︢рьство блъгарское
|common_name = Bulgaria
| conventional_long_name = Bulgarian Empire
|
|image_flag = | image_flag = Flag of the Second Bulgarian Empire (1325).svg
| flag_border = no
|image_coat = Coat of arms of the Second Bulgarian Empire.svg
|symbol = Coat of arms of Bulgaria | flag_size = 120px
| image_flag2 = Flag of the Second Bulgarian Empire.svg
|symbol_type = Imperial Coat of arms <br>(''during the reign of Tsar Ivan Shishman'')
| flag_type = Top: Flag according to ] {{nowrap|({{circa|1325}})}}<br />Bottom: Flag according to ] {{nowrap|({{circa|1380}})}}
|image_map = Campaigns of Ivan Assen II.png
| image_coat = Coat of arms of the Second Bulgarian Empire.svg
|image_map_caption = Bulgaria under Ivan Asen II
| symbol = Coat of arms of Bulgaria
|
| symbol_type = Shield of the Tsar's Watch in Tarnovo, end of 14th century
|continent = Europe
| image_map = Bulgaria-Iván Asen2-es.svg
|region = Balkans
| image_map_caption = Second Bulgarian Empire under ]
|era = Middle Ages
| era = ]
|status = Empire
| status = Empire
|government_type = Monarchy
| government_type = ]
|
|year_start = 1185 | year_start = 1185
|year_end = 1422 | year_end = 1396
| event_start = ]
|
| event_end = ]
|event_start = Reestablishment
| p1 = First Bulgarian Empire
|event1 = ]
| p2 = Bulgaria (theme)
|date_event1 = 17 July 1393
| s1 = Ottoman Bulgaria
|
|p1 = First Bulgarian Empire | s2 = Tsardom of Vidin
| s3 = Despotate of Dobruja
|image_p1 = ]
|s1 = Ottoman Bulgaria | s4 = Despotate of Lovech
| s5 = Wallachia
|image_s1 = ]
| capital = ]<br />{{small|(1185–1393)}} <br />]<br />{{small|(1393–1395)}} <br />] {{small|(1356/1386 as capital of the ])}}
|
| common_languages = {{ubl|]|]|]|]|]}}
|capital = ]<br><small>(1185–1393)</small><br> ] and ]<br><small>(1393–1422)</small>
| religion = ] {{small|(official, 1204–1235 in the union with Rome)}}<br/> {{nowrap|] {{small|(banned)}}}}
|common_languages = ]
| currency =
|religion = ]<br><small>(1185–1204; 1235-1422)</small><br>]<br><small>(1204-1235)</small>
| leader1 = ] {{small|(first)}}
|currency =
| leader2 = ] {{small|(last)}}
|
| year_leader1 = 1185–1197
|leader1 = ] (first)
| year_leader2 = 1397–1422
|leader2 = ] (last)
| title_leader = ] (''Emperor'')
|year_leader1 = 1185–1190
| deputy1 =
|year_leader2 = 1396–1422
| year_deputy1 =
|title_leader = ] (''Emperor'')
|deputy1 = | title_deputy =
| stat_year1 = 1230<ref name="matanov">{{cite book |last1=Matanov|first1=Hristo|title=В търсене на средновековното време. Неравният път на българите (VII–XV в.)(in Bulgarian), pp. 168–169 "Balkans in 1230"|date=2014 |publisher=IK Gutenberg|isbn=9786191760183}}</ref>
|year_deputy1 =
| stat_area1 = 293,000
|title_deputy =
| stat_pop1 =
|
| footnotes =
|stat_year1 = 13th century
| demonym = ]
|stat_area1 = 350000
| today = ]<br/>]<br/>]
|stat_pop1 =
|stat_year2 =
|stat_area2 =
|footnotes =
|today = {{Collapsible list |titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=Countries today|{{flag|Bulgaria}}|{{flag|Albania}}|{{flag|Greece}}|{{flag|Kosovo}}|{{flag|Macedonia}}|{{flag|Moldova}}|{{flag|Montenegro}}|{{flag|Romania}}|{{flag|Serbia}}|{{flag|Turkey}}|{{flag|Ukraine}}|
}} }}
}}
The '''Second Bulgarian Empire''' ({{lang-bg|Второ българско царство}}, ''Vtorо Bălgarskо Tsartsvo'', for alternative names see ]) was a ] ]n state which existed between 1185 and 1396 (or 1422).<ref name=tjupavl>{{cite book | last = Tjutjundžiev | first = Ivan | coauthors = Plamen Pavlov | year = 1992 | title = Bǎlgarskata dǎržava i osmanskata ekspanzija 1369–1422 | location = Veliko Tǎrnovo | language = Bulgarian}}</ref> A successor of the ], it reached the peak of its power under ] and ].


The '''Second Bulgarian Empire''' ({{Langx|bg|Ц(а)рьство бл(ъ)гарское|label=]}};<ref>S. Kempgen, Remarks on the Patron’s Inscription of the Boyana Church, its Reproductions and Unicode-based Misplaced Pages Representation. (2010) Scripta & eScripta, vol. 8-9, Sofia, 2010, 27–36.</ref><ref>Polyvyannyy, D. (2019). Dynasticity in the Second Bulgarian Tsardom and its Manifestations in Medieval History Writing. Studia Ceranea. Journal of the Waldemar Ceran Research Centre for the History and Culture of the Mediterranean Area and South-East Europe, 9, 351-365. https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.09.19 .</ref> {{Langx|bg|Второ българско царство|Vtoro Balgarsko Tsarstvo|label=]}}) was a ] ]<ref name="f13">{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=13}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=334}}</ref>{{ambiguous|date=December 2022}} state that existed between 1185 and 1396.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=425}}</ref> A successor to the ],<ref>Second Bulgarian Empire (1185-1393) 1185 Successful uprising of Peter and Asen (called Belgun by the cumans) against the Byzantines results in the restoration of Bulgarian statehood between the Danube and the Balkan range. The renewed Bulgarian state rapidly restored and regained its former strength. For more: The A to Z of Bulgaria, Issue 223 of A to Z Guides, ], Edition 2, Scarecrow Press, 2010, {{isbn|978-0810872028}}, p. XXX.</ref><ref>R. J. Crampton, A Concise History of Bulgaria, Cambridge University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|1139448234}}, p. 24.</ref><ref>″State and Church in the XIII century, Emil Dimitrov (general editor). Synodik of tsar Boril″, (Translated from Old Bulgarian by Anna Maria Totomanova) </ref><ref>″State and church in the XIII century, Emil Dimitrov (general editor), CORRESPONDENCE OF THE BULGARIANS WITH POPE INOCENTIUS III.″ (Translated from Latin by Mikhail Voynov, Ivan Duychev) </ref> it reached the peak of its power under Tsars ] and ] before gradually being conquered by the ] in the late 14th century.
Up until 1256, the Second Bulgarian Empire was the dominant power in the ].<ref>http://www.world66.com/europe/bulgaria/history Bulgaria history</ref> The Byzantines were defeated in several major battles, and in 1205 the newly established ] was crushed in the ] by Emperor ]. His nephew, ] (1218–1241), defeated the ] and made Bulgaria a regional power once again. However, in the late 13th century the Empire declined under the constant invasions of ], ], ], ], and internal instability and revolts. Some cities, including the capital were conquered by the ] in the late 14th-early 15th century, when the empire ended. It was succeeded by the ] in 1878.

Until 1256, the Second Bulgarian Empire was the dominant power in the ], defeating the ] in several major battles. In 1205, Emperor ] defeated the newly established ] in the ]. His nephew ] defeated the ] and made Bulgaria a regional power again. During his reign, Bulgaria spread from the ] to the ] and the economy flourished. In the late 13th century, however, the Empire declined under constant invasions by ], ], ], and ], as well as internal unrest and revolts. The 14th century saw a temporary recovery and stability, but also the peak of Balkan ] as central authorities gradually lost power in many regions. Bulgaria was divided into three parts on the eve of the Ottoman invasion.

Despite strong Byzantine influence, Bulgarian artists and architects created their own distinctive style. In the 14th century Bulgarian culture, literature, art, and ] flourished.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Religion in Bulgaria after 1989|url=http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/getdocument.aspx?logid=5&id=B7ABEB3F-8650-4798-8CC2-649B6E6C24F2|last=Kǎnev|first=Petǎr|page=81|issue=1|year=2002|journal=South-East Europe Review}}</ref> The capital city ], which was considered a "]", became the country's main cultural hub and the centre of the Eastern Orthodox world for contemporary ].{{sfn|Obolensky|1971|p=246}} After the Ottoman conquest, many Bulgarian clerics and scholars emigrated to ], ], ], and ]n principalities, where they introduced Bulgarian culture, books, and ] ideas.<ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|pp=334, 337}}</ref>

==Nomenclature==
{{History of Bulgaria}}
{{See also|White Wallachia}}


The name most frequently used for the empire by contemporaries was ''Bulgaria'', as the state called itself.<ref name="f13"/> During ]'s reign, the state was sometimes known as being of both Bulgarians and ]. ] and other foreigners such as the Latin Emperor ] mentioned the state as ''Bulgaria'' and the ''Bulgarian Empire'' in official letters.<ref>"Letters by the Latin Emperor Henry" in LIBI, vol. IV, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, p. 15</ref><ref>"Letters by the Latin Emperor Henry" in LIBI, vol. IV, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, p. 16</ref>
Despite the strong Byzantine influence, the Bulgarian artists and architects managed to create their own distinct style. Literature and art flourished in the 14th century and a large part of the Bulgarian population was literate.<ref></ref>


In modern historiography, the state is called the ''Second Bulgarian Empire'', ''Second Bulgarian Tsardom'', or the ''Second Bulgarian Kingdom'' to distinguish it from the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kenrick|first=Donald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=df2mIOnbrDoC&pg=PA45 |title=Gypsies, from the Ganges to the Thames|year=2004|publisher=University of Hertfordshire Press|isbn=1902806239|page=45}}</ref> An alternative name used in connection with the pre-mid 13th century period is the ''Empire of Vlachs and Bulgarians'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/631511/Vlach?anchor=ref35948|title=Encyclopædia Britannica: Vlach|access-date=20 September 2011}}</ref> variant names include the ''Vlach–Bulgarian Empire'', the ''Bulgarian–Wallachian Empire'',<ref>{{cite book|last=Kolarz|first=Walter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVRpAAAAMAAJ&q=%22+bulgarian+wallachian+empire%22|title=Myths and Realities in Eastern Europe|year=1972|publisher=Kennikat Press|isbn=0804616000|page=217}}</ref> or the ''Romanian–Bulgarian Empire''; the latter name was used exclusively in Romanian historiography.<ref>{{cite book|last=Boia|first=Lucian|title=Romania: Borderland of Europe|year=1972|page=62}}</ref>
==Names==
The most used name by contemporaries was ''Bulgaria''. During ]'s reign the state was sometimes called as both of Bulgarians and Vlachs. ]<ref>http://www.promacedonia.org/libi/4/gal/4_015.html</ref> and other foreigners such as the Latin emperor ]<ref>http://www.promacedonia.org/libi/4/gal/4_016.html</ref> mentioned the state as ''Bulgaria'' and ''Bulgarian Empire'' in official letters.


However, Arabic chronicles from the 13th century had used only the name of Wallachia instead of Bulgaria and gave the Arabic coordinates of Wallachia and specified that Walachia was named "al-Awalak" and the dwellers "ulaqut" or "ulagh".<ref>Dimitri Korobeinikov, A broken mirror: the Kipchak world in the 13th century. In the volume: The other Europe from the Middle Ages, Edited by Florin Curta, Brill 2008, p. 394</ref>
In modern historiography the state is called the ''Second Bulgarian Empire'', ''Second Bulgarian Tsardom'' or the ''Second Bulgarian Kingdom''<ref></ref> (to distinguish it from the '']''). An alternative name (used in connection with the pre-mid 13th century period) is the ''Empire of Vlachs and Bulgars'',<ref></ref> whose different variants include the ''Vlach-Bulgarian Empire'',<ref></ref> the ''Bulgarian-Wallachian Empire''<ref></ref> or the ''Romanian-Bulgarian Empire'' (the last one exclusively in Romanian historiography)<ref>Romania: borderland of Europe, by Lucian Boia, p.62</ref>


==Background== ==Background==
The Byzantines ruled Bulgaria from 1018, when they conquered the ], to 1185, although initially it was not fully integrated into the ], for example preserving the existing tax levels and the power of the low-ranking nobility. The independent ] was subordinated to the authority of the ] in ], and the Bulgarian aristocracy and ]'s relatives were given various Byzantine titles and transferred to the Asian parts of the Empire. There were rebellions against Byzantine rule in 1040-41, the 1070s and the 1080s, but these ultimately failed.


In 1018, when the Byzantine emperor ] ({{reigned}} 976–1025) ] the First Bulgarian Empire, he ruled it cautiously. The existing tax system,{{cref|a}} laws, and the power of low-ranking nobility remained unchanged until his death in 1025. The ] ] was subordinated to the ] in ] and downgraded to an ], while retaining its autonomy and dioceses. Basil appointed the Bulgarian ] as its first archbishop, but his successors were Byzantines. The Bulgarian aristocracy and tsar's relatives were given various Byzantine titles and transferred to the Asian parts of the Empire.<ref name="bg342">{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|pp=342–343}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=365}}</ref> Despite hardships, the Bulgarian language, literature, and culture survived; surviving period texts refer to and idealize the Bulgarian Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|pp=391–392}}</ref> Most of the newly conquered territories were included in the themes ], ], and ].
==Liberation==
], capital of Bulgaria (1185–1396)]]
By the late 12th century the Byzantine dominance in the Balkans came to a halt when Manuel I Komnenus (who had subjugated the Hungarians at ]) died and was replaced by Andronikus I Komnenus and then by ]. In 1185 Peter and ] Asen (described in some contemporary accounts to be of ] or ] origin) led ] and Peter declared himself Tsar ] (also known as Theodore Peter), firmly claiming to inherit the authority of the ]. After little more than a year of warfare the Byzantines were forced to acknowledge Bulgaria's independence, though fighting continued. The liberating movement was originated and vigorously prosecuted by Vlachs - either an alternative name for the inhabitants of Moesia or the ancestors of today's Vlachs; it was joined by the Bulgarians, and to some extent by the Cumans from beyond the Danube”.<ref name="name8">History of the Byzantine Empire, A. A. Vasiliev 1935</ref> The peoples who took part in the rebellion and formed part of the new state certainly included Slavic-speaking Bulgarians and, alongside them, ], ] and ]: Peter styled himself "Tsar of the Bulgars and Greeks.


As the Byzantine Empire declined under Basil's successors, invasions of ] and rising taxes contributed to increasing discontent, which resulted in several major uprisings in 1040–41, the 1070s, and the 1080s. The initial centre of the resistance was the theme of Bulgaria, in what is now ], where the massive ] (1040–41) and the ] (1072) took place. Both were quelled with great difficulty by Byzantine authorities.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=140, 143}}</ref> These were followed by rebellions in Paristrion and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=406}}</ref> During the ] and the temporary stabilisation of the Byzantine Empire in the first half of the 12th century, the Bulgarians were pacified and no major rebellions took place until later in the century.
===The war between 1185 and 1197===
{{History of Bulgaria}}
In the summer of 1185 a miraculous ] of Saint Demetrius of ] was found in Tarnovo and the Asen brothers claimed that the saint had abandoned Salonica in order to help the Bulgarian cause. That had a large psychological impact on the religious population. Between the autumn of 1185 and the spring of 1186 the whole northern Bulgaria, with the exception of ], was liberated. In the summer the Byzantine Emperor ] managed to overcome the mountain passes and invaded ]. Asen retreated to the north of the Danube; when the Byzantines went back to ] he returned with more Cuman auxiliaries and soon the war continued to the south in ]. A skillful general, Asen struck swiftly and constantly harassed the larger Byzantine armies. After an unsuccessful siege of ] in 1187, the Byzantines were forced to plead for a truce. Three years later they were decisively defeated near ], Isaac II Angelos barely escaping, leaving the Imperial crown and cross. In the next five years the Bulgarian held the initiative and reconquered more towns and castles in northern Thrace and ], especially after the major victory at ] in 1194. In 1196 the Byzantines were defeated at ] but soon after that event Asen was murdered by his cousin ], incited by the Byzantines. He usurped the throne but could not stay in the capital, which was besieged by Peter; he fled to the Byzantine Empire, where he was made a governor of ]. However, only a year later Peter IV became victim of another plot and was succeeded by the youngest brother ].


==Balkan power== ==History==
Resurrected Bulgaria occupied the territory between the ], the ] and ], including a part of eastern ] and the valley of the ]. It also exercised influence to ] and ]. During the rule of two of Bulgaria's most successful rulers, Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II, the country emerged as a regional power with considerable military and economic strength. Between 1204 and 1261, during the Latin Empire, the Bulgarian civil and religious authorities saw themselves as a Byzantine successor in preserving the traditions of the ] with numerous important relics being collected in the capital Tarnovo.


===Kaloyan=== ===Rebellion===
{{See also|Uprising of Asen and Peter}}
Tsar Kaloyan (1197–1207) entered a union with the ], thereby securing the recognition of his title of "]" although he desired to be recognized as "]" or "]". He and his ] allies waged wars against the ] and (after 1204) on the Knights of the ], conquering large parts of ], the ], as well as the whole of ]. He decisively defeated the newly created ] in the ] and thus crushed its power in the very first year of its creation and prevented their influence on the larger parts of the Balkans. Their Emperor ] was captured in the battle and later died in captivity in ]. In the next year the Latins suffered another heavy defeat in the ]. At first his struggle was supported by the Byzantine nobility but then they betrayed the Bulgarians and allied with the Crusaders. Kaloyan was infuriated and killed tens of thousands of Byzantines.<ref>Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 310</ref> At the ] he ordered the whole Byzantine population of the city to be buried alive.<ref>Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 314-315</ref> He wanted revenge for ]'s 14,000 blinded soldiers and called himself ''Romanoktonos'' (Roman-slayer) as ] was called ''Bulgaroktonos'' (Bulgarian-slayer).


The disastrous rule of the last Komnenian emperor ] (r. 1183–85) worsened the situation of the Bulgarian peasantry and nobility. The first act of his successor ] was to impose an extra tax to finance his wedding.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=11}}</ref> In 1185, two aristocrat brothers from ], ] and ], asked the emperor to provide them a relatively poor ] in the Balkan Mountains, in exchange for military service. The emperor refused, resulting in a heated argument which saw Asen struck across the face.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=10}}</ref> Upon their return to Tarnovo, the brothers commissioned the construction of a church dedicated to ]. They showed the populace a celebrated icon of the saint, who they claimed had left ] to support the Bulgarian cause and called for a rebellion. That act had the desired effect on the religious population, who enthusiastically engaged in a rebellion against the Byzantines. Theodore, the elder brother, was crowned Emperor of Bulgaria under the name Peter IV, after the sainted ] (r.927–969).{{cref|b}}<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=144, 149}}</ref> Almost all of Bulgaria to the north of the ]—the region known as ]—immediately joined the rebels, who also secured the assistance of the ], a Turkic tribe inhabiting lands north of the ] river. The Cumans soon became an important part of the Bulgarian army, playing a major role in the successes that followed.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|pp=11–12}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Vásáry|2005|p=17}}</ref> As soon as the rebellion broke out, Peter IV attempted to seize the old capital of ] but failed; he declared Tarnovo the capital of Bulgaria.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=144–145}}</ref>
To the west and north-west he fought against the Hungarians and defeated them several times.


] in Tarnovo, built by Asen and Peter in the beginning of the uprising]]
===Ivan Asen II===
After the death of Kaloyan during the reign of his cousin ] (1207–1218), the country lost significant territories to Hungary, the Latin Empire and the ].


From Moesia, the Bulgarians launched attacks in northern Thrace while the Byzantine army was fighting with the ], who had attacked Byzantine possessions in the Western Balkans and ], the Empire's second largest city. The Byzantines reacted in mid-1186, when Isaac II organized a campaign to crush the rebellion before it spread further. The Bulgarians had secured the passes but the Byzantine army found its way across the mountains due to a ].<ref name="f13"/><ref name="a150">{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=150}}</ref> Once the Byzantines reached the plains, the rebels did not risk a confrontation with the larger, better-organized force. Peter IV pretended he was willing to submit, while Asen travelled to the north of the Danube to raise an army. Contented, the Byzantine emperor burned the Bulgarians' crops and returned to Constantinople. Soon after, Asen crossed back over the Danube with Cuman reinforcements, declaring he would continue the struggle until all Bulgarian lands were liberated.<ref name="a150"/> A new Byzantine army was assembled under the command of the emperor's uncle ], but as Isaac II feared he would be overthrown, Doukas was replaced by ], a blind man ineligible for the throne. The Bulgarians attacked Kantakouzenos' camp during the night, killing a large number of soldiers.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=150–151}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=14}}</ref> In mid-1186, another army under the general ] was sent in. However, instead of fighting the rebels, Branas turned to Constantinople to claim the throne for himself; he was murdered shortly afterwards.<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=431}}</ref> Taking advantage of the chaos, the Bulgarians raided northern Thrace, looting the countryside before Byzantine forces could counterattack. On one occasion, the two armies confronted each other near the fortress of ] in an indecisive battle; the Bulgarians kept their plunder and retreated untroubled to the north of the Balkan mountains.<ref name="a151">{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=151}}</ref>
Under ] (1218–1241), Bulgarian fortunes improved, reconquering the lost lands and occupying ] and ]. In the beginning of his reign he peacefully regained ] and ] which were lost to Hungary and some lands from the Latin Empire. After the major success at ] in 1230 the Epirus Despotate became a vassal tributary to Bulgaria. In an inscription from ] in 1230 he entitled himself "In Christ the Lord faithful Tsar and autocrat of the Bulgarians, son of the old Asen". The Bulgarian Orthodox ] was restored in 1235 with approval of all eastern Patriarchates, thus putting an end to the union with the ]. Ivan Asen II had a reputation as a wise and humane ruler, and opened relations with the ] west, especially ] and ], to diversify the trade of his country. The country enjoyed a flourishing economy, trade relations were diversified and around 1235 Bulgaria had an organised Navy. In the last year of his reign he defeated a detachment of ] who attacked Bulgaria after their devastating raid in Hungary. But after his death Bulgar authorities recognized Mongol supremacy thanks to ].
]


In the late 1186, Isaac II launched his second campaign against Bulgaria. His army was forced to spend the winter in ], giving the Bulgarians time to prepare for the invasion. Early the following year, the Byzantines ] but could not seize it; they signed an armistice that '']'' recognized Bulgarian independence.<ref name="a151"/><ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|pp=431–432}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=15}}</ref> In 1189, when the leader of the ], emperor ] was at the brink of war with the Byzantines, Asen and Peter IV offered him an army of 40,000 in return for official recognition, but relations between the Crusaders and the Byzantines eventually improved. In 1190, Isaac II led another anti-Bulgarian campaign that ended in a catastrophic defeat ]. The emperor barely escaped with his life; the Imperial treasury, including the crown and the cross, were captured by the victorious Bulgarians.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=153–155}}</ref> After their success, Asen was crowned emperor and became known as Ivan Asen I.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=16}}</ref> Peter IV voluntarily stepped down to make way for his more energetic brother; Peter IV retained his title but Ivan Asen assumed authority.<ref name="Andreev 1996 145">{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=145}}</ref>
==Decline==
Under Ivan Asen II's successors, Bulgaria declined. The ] raided the Balkans in the early 13th century, devastating Bulgaria in 1242, and Bulgaria was forced to pay tribute to the Khans of the ]. After 1256 the ] annexed southern ], ] and part of ]. The ] occupied the province of ]. Gradually Bulgaria lost control and traditional significant political influence over ], where the power of the regional nobles was strengthened and subsequently were established local kingdoms. By the reign of ] (1246–1256), Bulgaria had lost significant territories to its enemies without any major military disaster, mostly due of the disloyal ] who surrendered territories for personal enrichment. Under ] the country lost northern and central Macedonia to Byzantium as well as Severin Banat to Hungary and the crisis drove to peasant war, raised by the swineherd ], who managed to sit on the Bulgarian throne from 1277 to 1280.


In the next four years, the focus of the war shifted to the south of the Balkan mountains. Ivan Asen's strategy of swiftly striking in different locations paid off, and he soon took control of the important cities Sofia and ] to the south-west, clearing the way to Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=434}}</ref> In 1194, the Byzantines gathered a huge force composed of the eastern and western armies, but were defeated at the ]. Unable to resist, Isaac II tried to ally with the Hungarian king ] and make a joint attack against Bulgaria, but was deposed and blinded by his brother ].<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=27}}</ref> The Byzantines tried to negotiate peace but Ivan Asen demanded the return of all Bulgarian lands and the war continued. In 1196, the Byzantine army was again defeated ], far to the south. Upon his return to Tarnovo, Ivan Asen was murdered by his cousin ] allegedly in a plot inspired by Constantinople.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=156–157}}</ref> Peter IV besieged Tarnovo and Ivanko fled to the Byzantine Empire, where he was made governor of ]. Peter IV was murdered less than a year after his brother's death.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=146–147}}</ref>
]
Ivailo achieved great military success against the external enemies: defeated the Byzantines in two major battles and temporarily drove away the ] from the northeastern parts of the Empire. However, he failed to cope with the aristocracy and was later killed. The Tatar hegemony continued to 1300, when after the death of ] their khan ] ceded ] the new Bulgarian Emperor ]. But the Horde's claim on Bulgaria was still strong.<ref>H.H.Howorth-History of the Mongols, d.II: pt.II, p.136</ref> This had positive economic effect. During the reign of Theodore Svetoslav Bulgaria regained much of its former strength and prestige. After a successful war against Byzantium he signed peace with continued to his death in 1322. ] Khan (1313–41) repeatedly raided Thrace, partly in service of Bulgaria's war against both Byzantium and ] from 1319. His armies pillaged Thrace for 40 days in 1324 and for 15 days in 1337, taking 300,000 captives.<ref>H.H.Howorth-History of the Mongols, d.II: pt.II</ref> After Ozbeg's death in 1341, his successors did not continue his aggressive policy and contacts with Bulgaria lapsed.<ref>Christopher P. Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.73</ref>


===Rise===
===Ivan Alexander and fall of Bulgaria===
]
{{See also|Bulgarian-Ottoman Wars}}
] where Kaloyan was buried]]
] ].]]
The withdrawal of the Mongols from Europe in the early 14th century stabilized the situation in the Balkans and Bulgaria reassumed something like its modern borders. It was however threatened by the rising powers of Hungary to the north and Serbia to the west. In 1330 the Bulgarians under ] were heavily defeated by the Serbs at ], and some parts of the Empire came under Serbian sway. Under ] (Ivan Alexander; 1331–1371) Serbian threat ended, and the Byzantines were defeated at ]. The territorial expansion included the ] and several important towns on the ] coast. This was a period known as ''Second Golden Age'' because of its thriving cultural life. After Ivan Alexander's death Bulgaria was left divided into rival states; one of the two largest ones was based at ], and the other at ], ruled by Ivan's two sons.


The throne was succeeded by ], Asen's and Peter IV's youngest brother. An ambitious and ruthless ruler, he wanted to gain international recognition and to complete the liberation of Bulgaria. Kaloyan also wanted revenge against the Byzantines for blinding 14,000 of emperor ]'s soldiers. Kaloyan called himself ''Romanoktonos'' (Roman-slayer) after ], who was called ''Bulgaroktonos'' (Bulgar-slayer).<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=160}}</ref> He quickly allied himself with his brother's murderer, Ivanko. The Byzantines killed Ivanko, but the Bulgarians took the city of ]. In 1201, Kaloyan captured ], the last Byzantine stronghold in Moesia, which was defended by a large garrison. Despite capturing the city at ], Kaloyan ordered every Byzantine to be thrown in the moat.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=31}}</ref> He then negotiated peace with Byzantines, securing Bulgarian gains in early 1202.<ref name="a162">{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=162}}</ref> While the Bulgarians were occupied in the south, the Hungarian king ] and his Serbian vassal ] had annexed ], ], and Niš, but after negotiating peace, Kaloyan turned his attention to the north-west. In 1203, the Bulgarians pushed the Serbs out of Niš, defeated the Hungarian army in several battles along the valley of the ], and recaptured their former territory.<ref name="a162"/>
The two brothers and despot ] from the ] did not make an attempt to unite and they were even engaged in a military conflict for Sofia.
Weakened Bulgaria was thus no match for a new threat from the south, the ], who crossed into Europe in 1354. In 1362 they captured Philippopolis (]), taking Sofia in 1382. The Ottomans then turned their attention to the Serbs, whom they routed at ] in 1389. In 1393 the Ottomans occupied ] after a ]. In the next year the Ottomans captured the Carvuna Principality and ] — the last town of the Tarnovo tsardom — fell in 1395. Next year the ] was also occupied. Finally all of Bulgaria south of the Danube fell in 1422.


Kaloyan knew the Byzantines would never recognize his imperial title; he began negotiations with Pope Innocent III. He based the claims on his predecessors in the First Bulgarian Empire; ], Peter I, and Samuel.<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=445}}</ref> The Pope was willing to recognize Kaloyan as king on the condition the Bulgarian Church would submit to Rome. After lengthy negotiations in which both acted diplomatically but without changing their positions, Kaloyan was crowned king in late 1204. Archbishop Basil was proclaimed ]. Kaloyan had no intention of submitting to that decision; he sent the Pope a letter expressing his gratitude for the Imperial title he had received and the elevation of the Bulgarian Church to a Patriarchate. Eventually the Papacy tacitly accepted the Bulgarian position regarding the Imperial title.<ref name="andreev165">{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=165}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|pp=445–446}}</ref><ref name="f56">{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=56}}</ref> The union between Bulgaria and Rome remained strictly official; the Bulgarians did not change their Orthodox rites and traditions.<ref name="f56"/>
North of the Danube, where a significant number of Bulgarian nobility and common folk remained, the population was under the jurisdiction of various Christian autonomous, predominately Wallachian led principalities, where the Bulgarian alphabet continued to be used <ref>{{cite web
]
|title= Omniglot, Romanian language
Several months before Kaloyan's coronation, the leaders of the ] turned on the Byzantine Empire and ], creating the ]. The Bulgarians tried to establish friendly relations with the Latins but were rebuffed and the Latins claimed their lands despite Papal recognition. Facing a common enemy, Kaloyan and the Byzantine aristocracy in Thrace made an alliance and the latter promised they would accept Kaloyan as their emperor.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=167}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=1095}}</ref> The decisive battle between the Bulgarian army and the Crusaders took place on 14 April 1205, ], at which the Latins were defeated and their emperor ] was captured. The battle was a blow to the newly founded Latin Empire, which descended into chaos.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=168–171}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|pp=81–82}}</ref> After their victory, the Bulgarians retook most of Thrace, including the important city of Philippopolis. The unexpected Bulgarian successes caused the Byzantine nobility to plot against Kaloyan and ally themselves with the Latins.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=171–172}}</ref> The plot in Tarnovo was quickly discovered; Kaloyan made brutal reprisals against the Byzantines in Thrace. The campaign against the Latins also continued; in 1206, the Bulgarians were victorious at the ] and conquered a number of towns in ]. The following year, ], the King of Salonica, was killed in battle, but Kaloyan was murdered before he could begin the assault on the capital.<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=457}}</ref>
|url= http://www.omniglot.com/writing/romanian.htm}}</ref> and many cities kept their Bulgarian names, like the Wallachian capital of ]. The nobility in the Christian principalities north of the Danube, continued to be known by their Bulgarian titles of Boyars and regularly helped Bulgarian population to continue to migrate north, as part of their military campaigns south of the Danube.<ref>{{cite web
|title= Vlad the Impaler – Explore
|url= http://www.exploringromania.com/vlad-the-impaler-3.html}}</ref> Thus, Bulgarian population north of the Danube never came under Ottoman occupation, which greatly helped the National revival south of the Danube in later centuries.


Kaloyan was succeeded by his cousin ], who tried to pursue his predecessor's policies but did not have his capability. His army was defeated by the Latins ], reversing most of Kaloyan's gains. Boril failed to maintain the integrity of the empire; his brother ] took most of Macedonia for himself, ] seceded his territory in the ]; in return for help suppressing a major rebellion in 1211, Boril was forced to cede Belgrade and Braničevo to Hungary. A campaign against Serbia in 1214 also ended in defeat.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=180–183}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=309}}</ref>
==Administration==
In many ways, the Bulgarian administration and court took example of the ]. The supreme power in the country belonged to the Emperor, whose official title was: "In Christ the God faithful Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians", at times with the addition of "Romans" (i.e. Byzantine Greeks)<ref>Мрачка грамота, Рилска грамота, Витошка грамота</ref> and Vlachs.<ref name=EBritannica> Very rarely, the state is called by historians the "Vlach-Bulgarian Empire", although the empire was never called this during its existence.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} That term was invented in the 19th century{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} by Romanian historians{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} based on the fact that ] called himself Emperor of Bulgarians and Vlachs.</ref> The most significant meaning was that he was Emperor of the whole Bulgarian people, even to those beyond the borders of the Empire. The legislative and executive powers were concentrated in his hands. If the heir of the ruler was under age, the regency was headed by the mother-Empress.


{{quotebox|width=35%|I waged war in Romania{{cref|c}}, defeated the Greek army, and captured the Lord Emperor Theodore Comnenus himself and all his ]. And I conquered all the land from Adrianople to Durazzo, Greek, Serbia and Albanian alike. The Franks{{cref|c}} hold only the cities in the vicinity of Constantinople itself. But even they are under the authority of my empire since they have no other emperor but me, and only thanks to me do they survive, for thus God has decreed.<br /><br />
The Bolyar Council included the Great Bolyars and the Patriarch. Their task was to discuss important questions about the external and internal policy such as declaration of war, formation of alliance or signing peace. The last word always belonged to the Emperor. Sometimes Councils with extended membership were assembled, where the nobility, the clergy and "the other people" usually gathered to discuss condemnation of heresies<ref>Синодник царя Борила, с.90</ref>: 1211, 1350, 1360. The only right the ordinary people had was to approve the decisions made by the nobility.
—''Tarnovo inscription of Ivan Asen II in the Church of the Holy Forty Martyrs on the aftermath of the battle of Klokotnitsa.''<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=125}}</ref>}}


As a result of the growing discontent with his policy, Boril was overthrown in 1218 by ], son of Ivan Asen I, who had lived in exile after Kaloyan's death.<ref name="a185">{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=185}}</ref> After his coronation, Ivan Asen II arranged a wedding with ], daughter of the Hungarian king Andrew II, and received the captured cities Belgrade and Braničevo as a dowry. He then signed an alliance with ], ruler of the most powerful Byzantine successor state, the ]. With his northern border secured by the treaty, Theodore Komnenos conquered Salonica, greatly reducing the size of the Latin Empire. In 1225, Theodore proclaimed himself emperor.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=120}}</ref> By 1228, the situation for the Latins became desperate; they entered into negotiations with Bulgaria, promising a marriage between the under-age emperor ] and Ivan Asen II's daughter Helena. This marriage would have made the Bulgarian emperor a regent in Constantinople, but in the meantime the Latins offered the regency to the French nobleman ].<ref name="a185"/> Concerned with the actions of the Bulgarians, while marching on Constantinople in 1230, Theodore Komnenos invaded Bulgaria with a huge army. Surprised, Ivan Asen II gathered a small force and moved to the south to engage them. Instead of a banner, he used the peace treaty with Theodore's oath and seal stuck on his spear and won a major victory in the ]. Theodore Komnenos was captured along with his whole court and most of the surviving troops.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=188–189}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=124}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=1134}}</ref> Ivan Asen II released all ordinary soldiers and marched on the Epirote–controlled territories, where all cities and towns from Adrianople to ] on the ] surrendered and recognized his rule. Theodore's brother ] was allowed to rule in Salonica over the southern areas of the despotate as a Bulgarian vassal.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=189}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=126}}</ref> It is possible Serbia accepted Bulgarian ] at that time to counter the threat from Catholic Hungary.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=137}}</ref>
The main administrative unit in 13-14th centuries was the ''hora'' ({{lang|bg|хорá}}) which replaced the ''komitat'' of the ]. Its governor was called Duke and was usually appointed by the Emperor; the ''hora'' was further divided into ''katepanika'' (sing. ''katepanikon'', cf. the Byzantine '']'') which were ruled by ]s who were directly subordinated to the Dukes.<ref>Ангелов, Д. История на Византия, 1972, с.97</ref>

In 1231, when John of Brienne arrived in Constantinople, Ivan Asen II allied with the ] against the Latins. After the Nicaeans recognized the Bulgarian Patriarchate in 1235, Ivan Asen II broke his union with the Papacy. The joint campaign against the Latins was successful, but they ]. With John of Brienne's death two years later, Ivan Asen II—who could have again become a regent of Baldwin II—decided to end his cooperation with Nicaea.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=190–191}}</ref> His decision was further based on the assumption that after an allied success, Constantinople would again have become the centre of a restored Byzantine Empire, with the Nicaean dynasty as a ruling house.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=130}}</ref> The Bulgarian–Latin cooperation was short-lived; Ivan Asen II remained at peace with his southern neighbours until the end of his reign. Shortly before his death in 1241, Ivan Asen II defeated part of the Mongol army returning to the east after a ].<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=192–193}}</ref>

===Decline===
{{See also|Uprising of Ivaylo}}
] and his first wife ], fresco from the ]]]

Ivan Asen II was succeeded by his infant son ]. Despite the initial success against the Mongols, the ] of the new emperor decided to avoid further raids and chose to pay them tribute instead.<ref>{{harvnb|Vásáry|2005|p=70}}</ref> The lack of a strong monarch and increasing rivalries among the nobility caused Bulgaria to rapidly decline. Its ] Nicaea avoided Mongol raids and gained power in the Balkans.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=156}}</ref> After the death of 12-year-old Kaliman I in 1246, the throne was succeeded by several short-reigned rulers. The weakness of the new government was exposed when the Nicaean army conquered large areas in southern Thrace, the Rhodopes, and Macedonia—including ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]—meeting little resistance. The Hungarians also exploited Bulgarian weakness, occupying Belgrade and Braničevo.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=200–201}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|pp=156–157}}</ref> The Bulgarians reacted as late as 1253, invading Serbia and regaining the Rhodopes the following year. However, ]'s indecisiveness allowed the Nicaeans to regain all of their lost territory, with the exception of Tsepina. In 1255, the Bulgarians quickly regained Macedonia, whose Bulgarian population preferred the rule of Tarnovo to that of the Nicaeans.<ref name="f159">{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=159}}</ref> All gains were lost in 1256, after the Bulgarian representative ] betrayed his cause and reaffirmed Nicaean control over the disputed areas.<ref name="f159"/><ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=204–205}}</ref> This major setback cost the emperor's life and led to a period of instability and civil war between several claimants to the throne until 1257, when the boyar of Skopje ] emerged as a victor.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=172}}</ref>

The new emperor had to deal with multiple foreign threats. In 1257, the Latins attacked and seized ] but could not hold the town. More serious was the situation to the north-west, where the Hungarians supported Rostislav, the self-proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria in ]. In 1260, Constantine Tikh recovered Vidin and occupied the Severin Banat, but the next year a Hungarian counterattack forced the Bulgarians to retreat to Tarnovo, restoring Vidin to Rostislav.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|pp=172, 174}}</ref> The city was soon controlled by the Bulgarian noble ], but by 1266 he also styled himself emperor.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=216}}</ref> The restoration of the Byzantine Empire under the ambitious ] further worsened Bulgaria's situation. A major Byzantine invasion in 1263 led to the loss of the coastal towns Messembria and ], and several cities in Thrace—including Philippopolis.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|pp=176–177}}</ref> Unable to effectively resist, Constantine Tikh organized a joint Bulgarian–Mongol campaign, but after ravaging Thrace the Mongols returned north of the Danube.<ref>{{harvnb|Vásáry|2005|pp=74–76}}</ref> The emperor became crippled after a hunting accident in the early 1260s, and fell under the influence of his wife ], whose constant intrigues fueled divisions among the nobility.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=218}}</ref>

]

Constant Mongol raids, economic difficulties, and the emperor's illness led to a ] in the north-east in 1277. The rebel army, led by the swineherd ], defeated the Mongols twice, greatly boosting Ivaylo's popularity. Ivaylo then turned on and defeated the regular army under the command of Constantine Tikh. He personally killed the emperor, claiming the latter did nothing to defend his honour.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=222–223}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Vásáry|2005|p=80}}</ref> Fearing a revolt in Byzantium, and willing to exploit the situation, the emperor Michael VIII sent an army led by ], a Bulgarian pretender to the throne, but the rebels reached Tarnovo first. Constantine Tikh's widow Maria married Ivaylo and he was proclaimed emperor. After the Byzantines failed, Michael VIII turned to the Mongols, who invaded ] and defeated Ivaylo's army, forcing him to retreat to ], where he withstood a three-month siege.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=224–226}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|pp=196–197}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Vásáry|2005|p=81}}</ref> After his defeat, Ivaylo was betrayed by the Bulgarian nobility, who opened the gates of Tarnovo to Ivan Asen III. In early 1279, Ivaylo broke off the siege at Drastar and besieged the capital. The Byzantines sent a 10,000-strong army to relieve Ivan Asen III, but suffered defeat by Ivaylo at the ]. Another army of 5,000 had a similar fate, forcing Ivan Asen III to flee.<ref name="a227">{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=227}}</ref> Ivaylo's situation did not improve, however—after two years of constant warfare his support was diminished, the Mongols were not decisively defeated, and the nobility remained hostile. By the end of 1280, Ivaylo sought refuge with his former enemies the Mongols, who under Byzantine influence killed him.<ref>{{harvnb|Vásáry|2005|p=83}}</ref> The nobility chose the powerful noble and ruler of ], ], as emperor. He reigned for twelve years, bringing even stronger Mongol influence and the loss of most of the remaining lands in Thrace to the Byzantines. This period of instability and uncertainty continued until 1300, when for a few months the Mongol ] ruled in Tarnovo.<ref>{{harvnb|Vásáry|2005|pp=87–89}}</ref>

===Temporary stabilization===
]

In 1300, ], George I's eldest son, took advantage of a civil war in the Golden Horde, overthrew Chaka, and presented his head to the Mongol khan ]. This brought an end to Mongol interference in Bulgarian domestic affairs and secured ] as far as ] to Bulgaria.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=228}}</ref> The new emperor began to rebuild the country's economy, subdued many of the semi-independent nobles, and executed as traitors those he held responsible for assisting the Mongols, including Patriarch ].<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=247}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=229}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Vásáry|2005|p=110}}</ref> The Byzantines, interested in Bulgaria's continuous instability, supported pretenders Michael and Radoslav with their armies, but were defeated by Theodore Svetoslav's uncle ], the despot of ]. Between 1303 and 1304, the Bulgarians launched several campaigns and retook many towns in north-eastern Thrace. The Byzantines tried to counter the Bulgarian advance but suffered a major defeat in the ]. Unable to change the status quo, they were forced to make peace with Bulgaria in 1307, acknowledging Bulgarian gains.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=248–250}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|pp=229–230}}</ref> Theodore Svetoslav spent the rest of his reign in peace with his neighbors. He maintained cordial relations with Serbia and in 1318, its king ], paid a visit to Tarnovo. The years of peace brought economic prosperity and boosted commerce; Bulgaria became a major exporter of agricultural commodities, especially wheat.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=250}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=230}}</ref>

During the early 1320s, tensions between Bulgaria and the Byzantines rose as the latter descended into a civil war and the new emperor ] seized Philippopolis. In the confusion following George II's unexpected death in 1322 without leaving a successor, the Byzantines recaptured the city and other Bulgarian-seized towns in northern Thrace.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=269}}</ref> The energetic despot of Vidin, ], was elected emperor the next year; he immediately turned on the Byzantine emperor ], regaining the lost lands.<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=563}}</ref> In late 1324, the two monarchs signed a peace treaty, strengthened by a marriage between the Bulgarian ruler and ]. Michael Shishman divorced his Serbian wife ], causing a deterioration of relations with Serbia. This change of political course is explained by the rapid growth of Serbian power and its penetration into Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=566}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=270}}</ref>

The Bulgarians and the Byzantines agreed to a joint campaign against Serbia, but it took five years until the differences and tensions between Bulgaria and Byzantium were overcome.<ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=1365}}</ref> Michael Shishman gathered 15,000 troops and invaded Serbia. He engaged the Serbian king ], who commanded an approximately equal force, near the border town of Velbazhd. The two rulers, both expecting reinforcements, agreed to a one-day truce but when a ] detachment under the king's son ] arrived, the Serbs broke their word. The Bulgarians were defeated in the ensuing ] and their emperor perished.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=262}}</ref> Despite their victory, the Serbs did not risk an invasion of Bulgaria and the two sides agreed to peace. As a result, ], the eldest son of the dead emperor by his Serbian wife, succeeded him in Tarnovo and was deposed after a brief rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=266}}</ref> Bulgaria did not lose territory{{cref|d}} but could not stop the Serbian expansion in Macedonia.<ref name="f272">{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=272}}</ref>

After the disaster at Velbazhd, the Byzantines attacked Bulgaria and seized a number of towns and castles in northern Thrace. Their success ended in 1332, when the new Bulgarian emperor ] defeated them in the ], recovering the captured territories.<ref name="f272"/><ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=269–271}}</ref> In 1344, the Bulgarians entered the ] on the side of ] against ], capturing nine towns along the ] river and in the Rhodope Mountains, including Philippopolis. That acquisition marked the last significant territorial expansion of medieval Bulgaria, but also led to the first attacks on Bulgarian soil by the ], who were allied with Kantakouzenos.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=272}}</ref>

===Fall===
] in Vidin]]

The attempts of Ivan Alexander to fight off the Ottomans in the late 1340s and early 1350s failed after two defeats in which his eldest son and successor ] and his second son ] may have been killed.<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |1994|pp=194–195, 212}}</ref> The emperor's relations with his other son ], who had been installed as the ruler of Vidin, deteriorated after 1349, when Ivan Alexander divorced his wife to marry ], a converted Jew. When their child ] was designated an heir to the throne, Ivan Sratsimir proclaimed independence.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=273}}</ref>

In 1366, Ivan Alexander refused to grant passage to the Byzantine emperor John V Palaiologos, and the troops of the ] attacked the ]. They seized ]is, Messembria, Anchialus, and ], causing heavy casualties and unsuccessfully laying siege to Varna. The Bulgarians eventually granted passage to John V, but the lost towns were handed over to the Byzantines.<ref>{{harvnb|Cox|1987|pp=222–225}}</ref> To the north-west, the Hungarians ] in 1365. Ivan Alexander reconquered his province four years later, allied with his ''de jure'' vassals ] and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=275}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Коледаров |1989|pp=13–25, 102}}</ref> The death of Ivan Alexander in 1371 left the country irrevocably divided between Ivan Shishman in Tarnovo, Ivan Sratsimir in Vidin, and Dobrotitsa in Karvuna. The 14th century German traveler ] described these lands as follows:

{{Quote|I was in three regions, and all three were called Bulgaria. The first Bulgaria extends there, where you pass from Hungary through the ]. Its capital is called Vidin. The other Bulgaria lies opposite ], and its capital is called Tarnovo. The third Bulgaria is there, where the Danube flows into ]. Its capital is called Kaliakra.{{sfn|Делев et al.|2006}}}}

]
] in 1396 was the final blow leading to the fall of the Bulgarian Empire.]]

On 26 September 1371, the Ottomans defeated a large Christian army led by the Serbian brothers ] and ] in the ]. They immediately turned on Bulgaria and conquered northern Thrace, the Rhodopes, ], ], and ], effectively limiting the authority of Ivan Shishman in the lands to the north of the ] and the ].<ref name="a282">{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=282}}</ref> Unable to resist, the Bulgarian monarch was forced to become an Ottoman vassal, and in return he recovered some of the lost towns and secured ten years of uneasy peace.<ref name="a282"/><ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|pp=655–656}}</ref>

The Ottoman raids renewed in the early 1380s, culminating in the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=407}}</ref> Simultaneously, Ivan Shishman had been engaged in war against Wallachia since 1384. According to the '']'', he killed the Wallachian ] ] in September 1386.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=266}}</ref> He also maintained uneasy relations with Ivan Sratsimir, who had broken his last ties with Tarnovo in 1371 and had separated the dioceses of Vidin from the Tarnovo Patriarchate.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=367}}</ref> The two brothers did not cooperate to repel the Ottoman invasion. According to historian ], the brothers were engaged in a bitter conflict over Sofia.<ref>{{harvnb|Иречек |1978|p=387}}</ref> Ivan Shishman reneged on his vassal obligation to support the Ottomans with troops during their campaigns. Instead, he used every opportunity to participate in Christian coalitions with the Serbs and the Hungarians, provoking massive Ottoman invasions in 1388 and 1393.

Despite strong resistance, the Ottomans seized a number of important towns and fortresses in 1388, and five years later they ] after a three-month siege.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=283–284, 286}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|pp=662–663}}</ref> Ivan Shishman died in 1395 when the Ottomans, led by ], took his last fortress ].<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=666}}</ref> In 1396, Ivan Sratsimir joined the Crusade of the Hungarian king ], but after the Christian army was defeated in the ] the Ottomans immediately marched on Vidin and seized it, bringing an end to the medieval Bulgarian state.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=297}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|pp=424–425}}</ref> ] under ] and ] until 1422. The former was referred to by king Sigismund as the "''distinguished Constantine, glorious Emperor of Bulgaria''".<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |1994|p=237}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Павлов |2008|p=218}}</ref>

==Administration, territorial division, society==
The Second Bulgarian Empire was a ]{{cref|e}} ruled by a ]—the Bulgarian word for Emperor that originated in the 10th century during the First Bulgarian Empire. The monarchs of Bulgaria styled themselves, "In Christ the Lord Faithful Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians" or variations, sometimes including "...and Romans, Greeks, or Vlachs".<ref name="pg608">{{harvnb|Петров |Гюзелев |1978|p=608}}</ref> The term ''all Bulgarians'' was added in the 14th century following the loss of many Bulgarian-populated territories and signified that the monarch in Tarnovo was the emperor of all Bulgarian people, even those who lived beyond the country's political borders.<ref name="pg608"/>

], such as the Rila Charter of Ivan Shishman issued in 1378, are an important source on medieval Bulgarian society and administrative posts.]]

The Emperor held supreme power over secular and religious affairs in an ]; his personal abilities played an important role in the country's well-being.<ref>{{harvnb|Бакалов et al.|2003|p=402}}</ref> When the monarch was an infant, the government was headed by a regency that included the mother-empress, the Patriarch, and senior members of the ruling dynasty.<ref name="bakalov403">{{harvnb|Бакалов et al.|2003|p=403}}</ref> As the processes of ] accelerated in the 14th century, it became customary for the monarch's sons to receive imperial titles during their father's lifetime; sons were styled co-rulers or junior emperors.<ref>{{harvnb|Петров |Гюзелев |1978|pp=611–612}}</ref>
Unlike the First Empire, the administration during the Second Bulgarian Empire was heavily influenced by the ]. Most of the titles of the nobility, the court, and the administration were directly adopted from their Byzantine counterparts in Byzantine Greek, or were translated into Bulgarian. There were some differences in the ranking systems between the two countries—there are few surviving sources about the precise obligations, insignia, or ceremonial affairs of the medieval Bulgarian administration.<ref>{{harvnb|Петров |Гюзелев |1978|p=618}}</ref> The ] included the greater bolyars and the Patriarch; it discussed issues about external and internal policies, such as declarations of war, formations of alliances, or the signing of peace treaties.<ref name="bakalov404">{{harvnb|Бакалов et al.|2003|p=404}}</ref> The highest-ranking administrative officials were the '']'', who had the functions of a first minister, and the '']'', who was responsible for the treasury and finance.<ref name="bakalov404"/> High court titles such as '']'' and '']'' were awarded to the Emperor's relatives but were not strictly concerned with administrative functions.<ref>{{harvnb|Бакалов et al.|2003|pp=404–405}}</ref>

], the capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire]]

The capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire was Tarnovo, which was also the centre of its own administrative unit under the direct authority of the emperor.<ref>{{harvnb|Коледаров |1989|p=12}}</ref> Bulgaria was divided into provinces, whose numbers varied with the territorial evolution of the country. In surviving primary sources, the provinces were named with the Byzantine term ''hora'' or the Bulgarian terms ''zemya'' ({{lang|bg|земя}}), ''strana'' ({{lang|bg|страна}}), and '']'' ({{lang|bg|област}}), usually named after its main city.<ref>{{harvnb|Петров |Гюзелев |1978|p=615}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Коледаров |1989|pp=9–10}}</ref> The provincial governors were titled "duke" or ''kefalia'' — both from Byzantine ] and ]—and were directly appointed by the emperor. The provinces were subdivided into ''katepanika'' (sing. ''katepanikon'', from the Byzantine '']''), which were ruled by '']s'' who were subordinated to the dukes.<ref name="k10">{{harvnb|Коледаров |1989|p=10}}</ref> During the reign of Ivan Asen II (1218–41), the provinces included Belgrade, Braničevo, ], Adrianople, ], Skopje, ], ], and ].<ref name="k10"/>
During the Second Empire, Bulgarian society was divided into three ]es: clergy, nobility, and peasantry. The nobility included the aristocracy: the ]s, whose origin was the older Bulgarian ]s from the First Empire, the judges, and the "whole army".<ref>{{harvnb|Петров |Гюзелев |1978|pp=615–616}}</ref> The bolyars were subdivided into greater and lesser bolyars. The former possessed large estates, which at times included tens and even hundreds of villages, and held high administrative and military posts.<ref>{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=193}}</ref> The peasants formed the bulk of the third class and were subordinated either under the central authorities or under local feudal lords. With time, the number of the latter increased as a result of the process of feudalization of Bulgaria.<ref>{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=203}}</ref> The main groups of peasants were ''paritsi'' and ''otrotsi''. Both could own land but only the ''paritsi'' could inherit property; the latter could not, since it was provided by the feudal lords.<ref>{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|pp=203–205}}</ref>

==Military==
{{Main|Medieval Bulgarian army}}
], an important stronghold in eastern Bulgaria]]

The emperor of the Second Bulgarian Empire was commander-in-chief of its army; the second-in-command was the ''velik (great) voivoda''. The detachments of the army were led by a '']''. The '']'' was responsible for the defence of certain regions and the recruitment of soldiers.{{sfn|Biliarsky|2011|p=355}} In the late 12th century, the army numbered 40,000 men-at-arms.<ref name="Andreev 1996 145"/> The country could mobilize around 100,000 men in the first decade of the 13th century; Kaloyan reportedly offered Baldwin I, the leader of the Fourth Crusade, 100,000 soldiers to help him take Constantinople.<ref name="a166">{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=166}}</ref> By the end of the 13th century, the military declined and the army was reduced to fewer than 10,000 men—it was recorded that Ivaylo defeated two Byzantine armies of 5,000 and 10,000 men, and that his troops were outnumbered in both cases.<ref name="a227"/> Military strength increased with the political stabilization of Bulgaria in the first half of the 14th century; the army numbered 11,000–15,000 troops in the 1330s.<ref name="a269">{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=269}}</ref> The military was well supplied with ], including ]s, ]s, and catapults.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

The Bulgarian army used various ], relying on the experience of the soldiers and the peculiarities of the terrain. The Balkan mountains played a significant role in the military strategy and facilitated the country's defence against the strong Byzantine army. During wartime, the Bulgarians would send light cavalry to devastate the enemy lands on a broad front, pillaging villages and small towns, burning the crops, and taking people and cattle. The Bulgarian army was very mobile—for instance for four days before the Battle of Klokotnitsa, it covered a distance three times longer than the ] army covered in a week; in 1332, it travelled {{Convert|230|km|miles|abbr=on}} in five days.<ref name="a269"/>

{{quotebox|align=left|width=25%|Inside the fortress there is a large and elite army, its soldiers are heavily built, moustached and look war-hardened, but are used to consume wine and ]—in a word, jolly fellows.<ref>Cited in Халенбаков, О. ''Детска енциклопедия България: Залезът на царете'', с. 18</ref>|Ottoman commander Lala Shahin on the garrison of ].}}

Bulgaria maintained extensive lines of fortresses to protect the country, with the capital Tarnovo in the centre. To the north were lines along both banks of the ]. To the south were three lines; the first along the Balkan mountains, the second along ], northern Rhodope mountains and ], the third along the valley of the river ]. To the west, a line ran along the valley of the river ].<ref>{{harvnb|Коледаров |1989|pp=13, 26–27}}</ref>

During the Second Empire, foreign and mercenary soldiers became an important part of the Bulgarian army and its tactics. Since the beginning of the rebellion of Asen and Peter, the light, mobile Cuman cavalry was used effectively against the Byzantines and later the Crusaders. Kaloyan used 14,000 cavalrymen in the Battle of Adrianople.<ref name="a166"/> The Cuman leaders entered the ranks of the Bulgarian nobility; some of them received high military or administrative posts in the state.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|pp=167–169}}</ref> In the 14th century, the Bulgarian army increasingly relied on foreign mercenaries, which included Western knights, Mongols, ], or Wallachians. Both Michael III Shishman and Ivan Alexander had a 3,000-strong Mongol cavalry detachment in their armies.<ref name="a269"/> In the 1350s, emperor Ivan Alexander hired Ottoman bands, as did the Byzantine Emperor. Russians were also hired as mercenaries.<ref>{{cite book | title = Hungary and the Fall of Eastern Europe 1000-1568| last = Nicolle | first = David |author2=Angus McBride | year = 1988 | publisher = Osprey Publishing | page = 24 |quote=The army of the Second Bulgarian Empire was not, of course, solely Cuman... Mercenaries were also recruited, including Russians.}}</ref>


==Economy== ==Economy==
{{See also|Medieval Bulgarian coinage}}
The Medieval Bulgarian economy did not differ much from the other European states and relied mainly on agriculture, mining, traditional crafts and trade.
]

The economy of the Second Bulgarian Empire was based on agriculture, mining, traditional crafts, and trade. Agriculture and livestock breeding remained the mainstays of the Bulgarian economy between the 12th and 14th centuries. Moesia, ], and Dobrudzha were known for rich harvests of grain, including high quality wheat.<ref>"Imago Mundi by ]" in LIBI, vol. III, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, p. 66</ref> Production of wheat, barley, and millet was also developed in most regions of Thrace.<ref>"]" in LIBI, vol. III, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, p. 267</ref> The main wine-producing areas were Thrace, the Black Sea coast, and the valleys of the ] and ] rivers in Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Ангелов |1950|p=428}}</ref> Production of vegetables, orchards, and grapes became increasingly important since the beginning of the 13th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Ангелов |1950|p=429}}</ref> The existence of large forests and pastures was favorable for livestock breeding, mainly in the mountainous and semi-mountainous regions of the country.<ref>"History of the Crusade of Emperor Frederick I by Ansbert" in LIBI, vol. III, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, p. 283</ref> ] and especially ] were well developed. Honey and wax from Zagore were the best-quality bee products in the Byzantine markets and were highly praised.<ref>{{harvnb|Петров |Гюзелев |1978|p=238}}</ref> The forests produced wood for cutting (''бранища''); there were also fenced forests (''забели''), in which wood-cutting was banned.<ref>{{harvnb|Ангелов |1950|p=431}}</ref>

]

The increase in the number of towns gave strong impetus to handicrafts, metallurgy, and mining. Processing of crops was traditional; products included bread, cheese, butter, and wine. Salt was extracted from the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Петров |Гюзелев |1978|pp=266, 293–294}}</ref> Leathermaking, shoemaking, carpentry, and weaving were prominent crafts. Varna was renowned for the processing of fox fur, which was used for production of luxurious clothes.<ref>{{harvnb|Лишев |1970|p=84}}</ref> According to Western European sources, there was an abundance of silk in Bulgaria. The ] knight ] said that in the dowry of the Bulgarian princess ], "&nbsp;...&nbsp;there was not a single horse that was not covered in red silk fabric, which was so long that dragged for seven or eight steps after each horse. And despite they travelled through mud and bad roads, none of the silk fabrics was torn—everything was preserved in grace and nobility."<ref>{{harvnb|Петров |Гюзелев |1978|p=293}}</ref> There were blacksmiths, ironmongers, and engineers who developed catapults, battering rams, and other siege equipment, which was extensively used in the beginning of the 13th century.<ref>"Historia by Nicetas Choniates" in GIBI, vol. XI, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, p. 88</ref> Metalworking was developed in western Bulgaria—], ], and Sofia, as well in Tarnovo and Messembria to the east.<ref>{{harvnb|Лишев |1970|p=91}}</ref>
]
Monetary circulation and minting steadily increased throughout the period of the Second Bulgarian Empire, reaching their climax during the reign of ] (reigned 1331–1371). Along with his recognition by the Pope, emperor Kaloyan (r. 1197–1207) acquired the right to mint coins. Well-organized mints and engraving workshops were set up in the mid-13th century, producing copper, billon, and silver coinage.<ref>{{harvnb|Дочев |1992|p=312}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Радушев |1990|pp=10, 13}}</ref> The reform was initiated by Constantine Tikh Asen (r. 1257–1277) and led to a stabilization of the monetary market in Bulgaria. The Uprising of Ivaylo and the pillage raids of the Mongols in the late 13th century destabilized the coinage, resulting in a tenfold decrease of minting activities.<ref>{{harvnb|Дочев |1992|pp=181–183}}</ref> With the stabilization of the empire since 1300, Bulgarian monarchs issued an increased number of coins, including silver ones, but were able to secure the market with domestic coins after the 1330s.<ref>{{harvnb|Дочев |1992|pp=183–184}}</ref> The erosion of the central authorities on the eve of the Ottoman invasion gave rise to primitive, anonymous, and crudely-forged counterfeit coins.<ref>{{harvnb|Радушев |1990|p=21}}</ref> Along with the ], coins from the Byzantine Empire, Latin Empire, Venice, Serbia, the Golden Horde, and the small Balkan principalities were widely used. Due to the increase of production, there was a tendency to limit the circulation of foreign coins by the second half of the 14th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Дочев |1992|p=313}}</ref> Coins were minted by some independent or semi-independent Bulgarian lords, such as Jacob Svetoslav and Dobrotitsa.<ref>{{harvnb|Радушев |1990|pp=15, 21}}</ref>

==Religion==

===Religious policy===
] in Tarnovo was the seat of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church during the Second Empire. It was part of a larger complex which accommodated the Patriarch.]]

Following the refoundation of Bulgaria, the recognition of the imperial title of the monarch and the restoration of the Bulgarian Patriarchate became the priority of the Bulgarian foreign policy. The continuous state of war against the Byzantine empire urged Bulgarian rulers to turn to the Papacy. In his correspondence with Pope Innocent III, Kaloyan (r. 1197–1207) demanded imperial title and a Patriarchate, basing his claims on the heritage of the First Bulgarian Empire. In return, Kaloyan promised to accept Papal suzerainty over the Bulgarian Church.<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|pp=444–445}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=55}}</ref> The union between Bulgaria and Rome was formalized on 7 October 1205, when Kaloyan was crowned King by a papal legate and the Archbishop Basil of Tarnovo was proclaimed Primate. In a letter to the Pope, Basil styled himself ], against which Innocent III did not argue.<ref name="andreev165"/><ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=446}}</ref> Just like ] (r. 852–889) three centuries earlier, Kaloyan pursued a strictly political agenda in his negotiations with the Papacy, without sincere intentions to convert to ]. The union with Rome lasted until 1235 and did not affect the Bulgarian church, which continued its practices of ] canons and rites.<ref name="f56"/>

The ambition of Bulgaria to become the religious centre of the Orthodox world had a prominent place in the Second Empire's state doctrine. After the fall of Constantinople to the knights of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Tarnovo became for a time the main centre of Orthodoxy.<ref>{{harvnb|Дуйчев |1972|p=426}}</ref> The Bulgarian emperors were zealously collecting relics of Christian saints to boost the prestige of their capital.<ref>{{harvnb|Дуйчев |1972|pp=426–427}}</ref> The official recognition of the restored Bulgarian Patriarchate at the Council of ] in 1235 was a major step in that direction and gave rise to the concept of Tarnovo as a "]".<ref name="d430">{{harvnb|Дуйчев |1972|p=430}}</ref> The Patriarchate vigorously opposed the papal initiative to reunite the Orthodox Church with Rome; he criticized the ] and the Byzantine emperor for their apparent willingness to make concessions at the ] in 1272–74. Patriarch ] was called "pillar of Orthodoxy".<ref>{{harvnb|Златарски |1972|p=535}}</ref> Envoys were sent to the ] to negotiate an anti-Byzantine alliance, which included the other two Eastern Patriarchs, but the mission achieved nothing.<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=514}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Златарски |1972|pp=536–537}}</ref>

Disputes with the Patriarchate of Constantinople over the legitimacy of the Bulgarian Patriarchate intensified in the 14th century. In 1355, the Ecumenical patriarch ] tried to assert his supremacy over the Bulgarian church and claimed that under the provisions of the Council of Lampsacus it remained subordinated and had to pay annual tribute to Constantinople. These claims were not supported by authentic documents and the Bulgarian religious authorities ignored them.<ref>{{harvnb|Златарски |1972|pp=596–602}}</ref>

The structure of the Bulgarian Patriarchate followed the traditions of the First Empire. The head of the Church was the Patriarch of Bulgaria, who was a member of the State Council (Sinklit) and was at times a regent.<ref name="patriarchate">{{cite web |url=http://www.bg-patriarshia.bg/index.php?file=history.xml|title=History of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=Official Site of the Bulgarian Patriarchate|language=bg|access-date=2 February 2014}}</ref> The patriarch was assisted by a ] comprising bishops, high-ranking clerics, and sometimes representatives of secular authorities. The Bulgarian Church strictly followed official state policy—Patriarch ] was executed for treason because of suspected links with the Mongols.<ref name="patriarchate"/> The territorial extent of the Bulgarian Patriarchate varied according to territorial changes. At its height under the reign of Ivan Asen II (r. 1218–41), it consisted of 14 dioceses; Preslav, Cherven, ], Sofia, ], Drastar, Vidin, Serres, ], ], Braničevo, Belgrade, Niš, and Velbazhd; and the ] of Tarnovo and Ohrid.<ref>{{harvnb|Бакалов et al.|2003|p=445}}</ref><ref name="patriarchate"/>

===Hesychasm===
{{Main|Hesychasm}}
]


] (from Greek "stillness, rest, quiet, silence") is an ] tradition of prayer in the Eastern Orthodox Church that flourished in the Balkans during the 14th century. A mystical movement, Hesychasm preached a technique of mental prayer that, when repeated with proper breathing, might enable one to see the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=437}}</ref> Emperor Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71) was impressed by the practice of Hesychasm; he became a patron of Hesychastic monks. In 1335, he gave refuge to ] and provided funds for the construction of a monastery near ] in the ] in the southeast of the country; it attracted clerics from Bulgaria, Byzantium, and Serbia.<ref name="bozhinov619">{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=619}}</ref> Hesychasm established itself as the dominant ideology of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church with the work of the disciple of Gregory of Sinai. Gregory's disciple ] translated his writing into Bulgarian and reached his peak during the tenure of the last medieval Bulgarian patriarch ] (1375–94). Theodosius founded the ] near Tarnovo, which became the new Hesychastic and literary centre of the country.<ref name="bozhinov619"/><ref name="Fine 1987 439–440">{{harvnb|Fine|1987|pp=439–440}}</ref> Hesychastic intellectuals maintained regular connections with each other regardless of their nationalities, which significantly affected the cultural and religious exchange in the Balkans.
===Agriculture===
]
The main agricultural regions of the country were the Danubian plain and ]. The most widespread grains were ], ] and ]. From the 13th century the importance of vegetables, orchards and grapes grew.<ref>Ангелов, Д. По въпроса за стопанския облик на българските земи през XI-XII век ИП, 1950, с.429</ref> The main wine-producing areas were the ] coast, along the ], southern ]. Livestock breeding was well developed. There were many ], ]s and ].<ref>Georgius Acropolita. Historia, p.18</ref> The pastures were divided into two groups: winter pastures (valleys) and summer pastures (mountains). In the 14th century ] and ] became profitable branches.<ref>Сакъзов, Ив. Средновековното манастирско стопанство в България- СБИД, 22, 1923/1924, с.221</ref>


===Bogomilism and other heresies===
The dense forests were also divided into two types: woods for cutting (''{{lang|bg|бранища}}'') and fenced forests (''{{lang|bg|забели}}'') in which cutting was banned.<ref>Ангелов, Д. По въпроса за стопанския облик на българските земи през XI-XII век ИП, 1950, с.431</ref>
{{Main|Bogomilism}}
], a ], ] sect, was founded in the 10th century during the First Bulgarian Empire.<ref name="kazhdan301">{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=301}}</ref> It later spread throughout the Balkans and flourished after the fall of Bulgaria under Byzantine rule. The Eastern Orthodox Church considered the Bogomils, who preached civil disobedience that was particularly alarming for the state authorities, heretics.<ref name="kazhdan301"/>


Bogomilism saw a major resurge in Bulgaria as a result of the military and political setbacks during the reign of Boril (r. 1207–18). The emperor took swift, decisive measures to suppress the Bogomils; on 11 February 1211 he presided over the first ] in Bulgaria, which was held in Tarnovo.<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |1994|p=71}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|pp=470–471}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=100}}</ref> During the discussions, the Bogomils were exposed; those who did not return to Orthodoxy were exiled. Despite the extant union with the Roman Catholic Church, the synod followed strictly the canons of the Orthodox Church. In the specially dedicated '']'', the monarch was described as "Orthodox emperor" and the Synod of Tarnovo was added to the list of Orthodox synods.<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=471}}</ref> As a result of Boril's actions, the influence of the Bogomils was greatly reduced but was not eradicated.
===Metallurgy and crafts===
The 12th-14th centuries gave a strong impetus to metallurgy and mining. Bulgarian smiths produced hammers, pliers, axes, saws, looms; different arms and armours. In the 13th century ] miners, who made ore extracting more efficient and introduced new mining methods, arrived in western Bulgaria. They inhabited mainly the regions of ] and ]. There used to be ] mines in the Eastern ]s.


Many heretical movements, including ] and ] that arrived with exiles from the Byzantine Empire, established themselves in Bulgaria in the 14th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=441}}</ref> These movements, along with the Bogomilism and Judaism, were condemned by the Council of Tarnovo in 1360, which was attended by the imperial family, the patriarch, nobles, and clerics. There are no sources about the existence of Bogomils in Bulgaria after 1360, implying the sect had already been weakened and had few followers.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=442}}</ref> Persecution of the remaining Adamites and Barlaamists continued on a smaller scale, headed by Theodosius of Tarnovo and patriarch Euthymius.<ref name="bg620">{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=620}}</ref>
About 50 different types of handicraft were known in Medieval ], the most important being leathermaking, shoemaking, carpentry, weaving; production of food and drinks (bread, butter, cheese, wine). Vast quantity of catapults, battering-rams and other siege equipment were made, and the army had skilled siege engineers.<ref>Nicetas Choniata. Historia, p.835</ref> The main centres were the capital Tarnovo, ],<ref>Снегаров, Ив. Неиздадени старобългаски жития- БДА, 3, 1953, 163-167</ref> Sofia (copper).<ref>Лишев Стр. Българския средновековен град, с.9</ref>


==Culture== ==Culture==
] ]
{{See also|Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School|Painting of the Tarnovo Artistic School}}
In the 13th and 14th centuries Bulgaria became a thriving cultural centre. The flowering of the Tarnovo school of art was related to the construction of palaces and churches, to literary activity in the royal court and the monasteries, and to the development of handicrafts. Remarkable achievements of this school have been preserved down to this day: the murals of the Boyars' houses in ] and ] in ], the ] (1259) and the ]. Book illuminations also developed, examples include the ''Manasses Chronicle'', the '']'' and the ''Tomich Psalter''. Many relics of ] martyrs and saints were kept in the numerous churches in the capital Turnovo, which earned the capital the byname "second Constantinople".
Most of the architectural monuments from that period include churches, monasteries and fortresses. The Bulgarians usually built small churches with short doors to show humbleness and homage to God. They were often richly decorated with blind niches, various geometrical patterns from bricks, stone cubes, ceramics; while from the inside they were painted with marvelous frescoes which from the 13th century began to draw away from the canon and became realistic.


The Second Bulgarian Empire was a centre of a thriving culture that reached its peak in the mid-to-late 14th century during the reign of Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71).<ref name="bg620"/><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=435}}</ref> Bulgarian architecture, arts, and literature spread beyond the borders of Bulgaria into ], Wallachia, ], and the Russian principalities and affected Slavic culture.<ref name="f436">{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=436}}</ref><ref name="k337">{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=337}}</ref> Bulgaria was influenced by the contemporaneous Byzantine cultural trends.<ref name="k337"/> The main cultural and spiritual centre was Tarnovo, which grew into a "Second Constantinople" or "Third Rome".<ref name="d430"/> Bulgarian contemporaries called the city "Tsarevgrad Tarnov", the ''Imperial city of Tarnovo'', after the Bulgarian name for Constantinople—].<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|pp=620–621}}</ref> Other important cultural hubs included Vidin, Sofia, Messembria, and a large number of monasteries throughout the country.
In the 14th century many new monasteries were built under the patronage of Ivan Alexander on the northern slopes of ], especially in an area near the capital Tarnovo which became known as "Sveta Gora" (Holy Forest) - a name also used to refer to ]. The numerous monasteries across the Empire were the very centre of the cultural, educational and spiritual life of the Bulgarian society. Ather the mid 14th centuries, many monasteries began to build fortifications under the thread of Turk invasions, such as the famous Tower of Hrelyu in the ].


===Architecture===
There used to be a perfectly organised defensive network of fortresses which consisted of several lines along the ], the ], the ], the coast. The main fortress was Turnovo. Other major castles included ], ], Cherven, ], ], ], ], ] and many others.
{{Main|Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School}}
<center><gallery caption="">
{{multiple image
Image: Boyana Angel.jpg|A fresco depicting St. Nicholas, ]
| width = 220px
Image: Desislava.jpg|Frescoes from the ] (1259): Desislava
| footer = ''Left:'' The ] in Messembria. ''Right:'' The ] in Asen's Fortress
Image: Ival-ivanovo-mural.jpg|Contemporary mural portrait of Ivan Alexander from the ]
| image1 = Pantokrator church in Nessebar (Bulgaria).jpg
Image: Constantine KeraThamara Keratsa Desislava Tetraevangelia Ivan Alexander.jpg|A miniature from the ]
| alt1 = A medieval church
Image: Nessebar Pantocrator.jpg|Christ Pantocrator, one of ]'s 40 churches.
| caption1 =
Image: Ikon Venecia.JPG| ], Veliko Tarnovo
| image2 = Asens Fortress TB 10.jpg
Image: Patriarshia Tarnovo Bulgaria.JPG|Patriarshia in Veliko Tarnovo
| alt2 = A medieval church
Image: Miriams Tanz.jpg|A miniature from the ]
| caption2 =
</gallery></center>
}}

The network of cities in the Second Bulgarian Empire grew in the 13th and 14th centuries; numerous new urban centres rose to prominence. The cities were usually constructed in difficult-to-access locations and generally consisted of an inner and outer town. The nobility lived in the inner town, which included the citadel, while most citizens inhabited the outer town. There were separate neighbourhoods for the nobility, craftsmen, merchants, and foreigners.<ref>{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=379}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Бакалов et al.|2003|pp=426–427}}</ref> The capital Tarnovo had three fortified hills—], Trapezitsa, and Momina Krepost, built along the meanders of the ]. Several neighbourhoods along the river's banks including separate quarters for Western Europeans and Jews.<ref>{{harvnb|Бакалов et al.|2003|pp=427–428}}</ref>

Fortresses were built on hills and plateaus—the Byzantine historian ] said the Bulgarian castles in the Balkan Mountains were situated "at heights above the clouds".<ref name="angelov381">{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=381}}</ref> They were built with crushed stones welded together with plaster, in contrast to the monumental ensembles in the north-east of the country dating from the period of the First Empire.<ref name="angelov381"/> The gates and the more vulnerable sections were secured with pinnacled towers; these were usually rectangular but there were also irregular, circular, oval, triangular, or horseshoe-shaped towers.<ref name="angelov381"/>

] in Donja Kamenica]]

Religious architecture was very prestigious; churches were among the most decorated and solid edifices in the country. Throughout the 13th and 14th centuries, ]s were replaced with ], domed churches with one or three ]s.<ref name="angelov382">{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=382}}</ref> The church's exteriors had rich, decorative ornamentation with alternating belts of stone and brickwork. They were further decorated with green, yellow, and brown ceramic pieces.<ref name="angelov382"/> This feature is seen in several churches in Messembria, including the ] and the 14th century ]—which had rows of ]es, four-leaved floral motifs, triangular ornaments, circular ] ceramics, and brick ] ]s running along the external walls.<ref>{{harvnb|Николова |2002|pp=147–148}}</ref> Every church in Tsarevets—over 20—and many of the 17 churches in Trapezitsa were decorated with similar techniques.<ref name="angelov382"/> A rectangular ] above the ] is a typical characteristic of the ]. Some churches, such as ] in ] built during the Byzantine rule, were reconstructed with belfries.<ref name="angelov384">{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=384}}</ref>

The ] in ] in the western part of the Bulgarian Empire (in modern Serbia) is notable for its unusual architectural style. Its twin towers are topped off by sharp-pointed pyramidal elements, with additional sharp-pointed details in each of the pyramids' four corners. The towers and their design were entirely unusual and unprecedented in medieval Bulgarian church architecture and were an influence from ] or ].<ref>{{harvnb|Николова |2002|p=116}}</ref>

]

The Imperial Palace in Tarnovo was initially a bolyar castle; it underwent two major reconstructions under Ivan Asen II (r. 1218–41) and Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71). The palace had the shape of an irregular ellipse and a built-up area of {{Convert|5000|sqm|sqft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="angelov384"/> The walls were up to {{Convert|2|metres|feet|abbr=on}} thick. The entrance gates were guarded by round and rectangular towers; the main entrance was located in the round tower of the northern façade. The edifices were built around an inner yard with a richly decorated royal church in the middle.<ref>{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|pp=384–385}}</ref> The Patriarch Palace was situated on the highest point of Tsarevets and dominated the city. Its plan resembled that of the Imperial Palace and occupied {{Convert|3000|sqm|sqft|abbr=on}}. A four-cornered bell tower adjoined the ]. The residential and office sections were located in the southern part of the edifice.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pravoslavieto.com/poklonnichestvo/starite_bg_stolici/Tarnovo/sv_vaznesenie.htm|title=Патриаршеската катедрала "Свето Възнесение Господне"|trans-title=The Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God|publisher=Православие|language=bg|access-date=8 November 2014|archive-date=15 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715111717/http://www.pravoslavieto.com/poklonnichestvo/starite_bg_stolici/Tarnovo/sv_vaznesenie.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Few examples of nobility houses have survived. To the north of the Imperial Palace, the foundations of a bolyar house from the beginning of the 13th century have been excavated. It had a Г-shaped plan and consisted of a residential area and a small, one-nave church.<ref name="angelov385">{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=385}}</ref> There were two types of mass dwellings; semi-dug houses and overground houses. The latter were constructed in cities and usually had two stories; the lower floor was built with crushed stones soldered with mud or plaster and the second was built with timber.<ref name="angelov385"/>

===Art===
{{Main|Painting of the Tarnovo Artistic School}}
], ''ktitors'' of the ]]]

The mainstream of Bulgarian fine arts in the 13th and 14th centuries is known as the ]. Despite being influenced by some tendencies of the ] in the Byzantine Empire, Bulgarian painting had unique features; it was first classified as a separate artistic school by the French art historian ].<ref name="angelov389">{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=389}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=La peinture religiouse en Bulgarie|last=Grabar|first=André|year=1928|language=fr|location=Paris|page=95}}</ref> The school's works had some degree of realism, individualized portraits, and psychological insight.<ref name="angelov389"/><ref>{{harvnb|Цончева |1974|p=343}}</ref> Very little secular art of the Second Empire has survived. Fragments of murals depicting a richly decorated figure were uncovered during excavations in the throne room of the Imperial palace in Tarnovo. The walls of the throne room were probably decorated with images of Bulgarian emperors and empresses.<ref name="angelov389"/>

The frescoes in the ] near Sofia are an early example of the painting of the Tarnovo Artistic School, dating from 1259; they are among the most complete and best-preserved monuments of Eastern European medieval art.<ref name="boyana">{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/42|title=Boyana Church|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=Official Site of UNESCO|access-date=4 November 2014}}</ref> The portraits of the church's '']s'', ], and of the ruling monarch Constantine Tikh and his wife ] dressed with ceremonial garments, are especially realistic.<ref name="angelov390">{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=390}}</ref> The ] in the north-east of the country contain several churches and chapels that represent the evolution of the Bulgarian art in the 13th and 14th centuries. In paintings in churches of the first period, painted during the reign of Ivan Asen II (r. 1218–41), human figures are depicted in realistic style, with oval faces and fleshy lips. The colours of the clothing are bright, while the 14th century frescoes are in the classical style of the Palaeogan period.<ref name="angelov390"/><ref name="ivanovo">{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/45|title=Rock-Hewn Churches of Ivanovo|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=Official Site of UNESCO|access-date=4 November 2014}}</ref> Both Boyana Church and the Rock-Hewn Churches of Ivanovo are included in the ] ].<ref name="boyana"/><ref name="ivanovo"/>

]]]

In Tarnovo, no complete painting ensemble has survived. The thirty-five scenes preserved in ] feature the mild tones and sense of realism characteristic of the school.<ref name="angelov389"/> Fragments of frescoes were excavated in the ruins of the seventeen churches in Tarnovo's second fortified hill, Trapezitsa; among them were depictions of military figures wearing richly decorated garments.<ref name="angelov389"/> The palace chapel was decorated with mosaics.<ref>{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|pp=389–390}}</ref> In western Bulgaria, local characteristics of the remnant art include archaism in the composition and unshaded tones, examples of which are found in locations including ], the Church of the Holy Mother of God in ], and the ] in ].<ref>{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=391}}</ref>

Many books of the Second Bulgarian Empire contained beautifully crafted miniatures, the most notable examples being the Bulgarian translation of the '']'', the '']'', and the '']'', which together have 554 miniatures.<ref name="bg622">{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|p=622}}</ref> The style of the miniatures, which depict a variety of theological and secular events and have significant aesthetic value, was influenced by contemporaneous Byzantine works.<ref>{{harvnb|Божилов |Гюзелев |1999|pp=622–624}}</ref>

The Tarnovo school continued; it enriched the traditions and icon designs of the First Bulgarian Empire. Some notable icons include ''St Eleusa'' (1342) from Messembria, which is currently kept in ] in Sofia, and ''St John of Rila'' (14th century), which is kept in Rila Monastery. Like the Boyana Church frescoes, ''St John of Rila'' uses realism and non-canonical design.<ref name="angelov392">{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=392}}</ref> Some of the preserved icons feature silver platings with enamel images of saints.<ref name="angelov392"/>

===Literature===
{{Main|Medieval Bulgarian literature|Tarnovo Literary School}}
]'']]

The main centres of literary activity were churches and monasteries, which provided primary education in basic literacy throughout the country. Some monasteries rose to prominence by providing a more advanced education, which included study of advanced grammar; biblical, theological, and ancient texts; and Greek language. Education was available to laymen; it was not restricted to the clergy. Those who completed the advanced studies were called ''gramatik'' (граматик).<ref name="f436"/> Books were initially written on parchment, but paper, imported via the port of Varna, was introduced at the beginning of the 14th century. At first, paper was more expensive than parchment, but by the end of the century its cost had fallen, resulting in the production of larger numbers of books.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|pp=436–437}}</ref>

Few texts from the 12th and 13th centuries have survived.<ref name="k337"/> Notable examples from that period include the "Book of Boril", an important source for the history of the Bulgarian Empire, and the ''Dragan Menaion'', which includes the earliest known Bulgarian ] and hymn tunes, as well as liturgies for Bulgarian saints ], ], and emperor Peter I.<ref>{{cite book | title = Български старини из Македония | last = Иванов| first = Йордан| year = 1970| language = bg | location = Sofia| publisher = Българска академия на науките |pages = 296–305, 359–367, 387–390}}</ref> Two poems, written by a Byzantine poet in the court in Tarnovo and dedicated to the wedding of emperor Ivan Asen II and ], have survived. The poet compared the emperor to the sun and described him as "more lovely than the day, the most pleasant in appearance".<ref>{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=429}}</ref>

During the 14th century, literary activities in the Second Empire were supported by the court, and in particular by emperor Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71), which combined with a number of prolific scholars and clergymen, led to a remarkable literary revival known as the ].<ref name="f436"/><ref name="k337"/> Literature was also patronized by some nobles and wealthy citizens.<ref>{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=431}}</ref> Literature included translation of Greek texts and the creation of original compositions, both religious and secular. The religious books included ], ], ], and hymns. Secular literature included chronicles, poetry, novels and novellas, ], popular tales, such as ''The Story of Troy'' and ''Alexandria'', legal works, and works on medicine and natural science.<ref name="f436"/>

]'']]

The first notable 14th century Bulgarian scholar was Theodosius of Tarnovo (d. 1363), who was influenced by Hesychasm and spread hesyachastic ideas in Bulgaria.<ref name="Fine 1987 439–440"/> His most prominent disciple was Euthymius of Tarnovo (c. 1325 – c. 1403), who was Patriarch of Bulgaria between 1375 and 1393 and founder of the Tarnovo Literary School.<ref name="bg622"/> A prolific writer, Euthymius oversaw a major linguistic reform that standardized the spelling and grammar of the Bulgarian language. Until the reform, texts often had variations of spelling and grammar use. The model of the reform was not the contemporaneous language but that of the ] in the late 9th and early 10th centuries during the First Bulgarian Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|pp=442–443}}</ref>

The Ottoman conquest of Bulgaria forced many scholars and disciples of Euthymius to emigrate, taking their texts, ideas, and talents to other Orthodox countries—Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and the Russian principalities. So many texts were taken to the Russian lands that scholars speak about a second South Slavonic influence on Russia.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|p=444}}</ref> The close friend and associate of Euthymius, ], became ] and took Bulgarian literary models and techniques.<ref name="k337"/> ] worked in Serbia and Moldavia before assuming a position at Metropolitan of Kiev. He wrote a number of sermons, liturgies, and hagiographies, including a "Praising epistle for Euthymius".<ref name="k337"/><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1987|pp=444–445}}</ref> Another important Bulgarian émigré was ], who worked in Serbia and whose biography of despot ] is described by ] as "the most important historical work of old Serbian literature".<ref>{{cite book | title = History of the Byzantine State | last = Ostrogorsky| first = George| year = 1969| location = New Brunswick| publisher = Rutgers University Press |page = 476}}</ref>

Apocryphal literature thrived in the 13th and 14th centuries, often concentrating on issues that were avoided in the official religious works. There were also many fortune-telling books that predicted events based on astrology and dreams.<ref>{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|pp=448–449}}</ref> Some of them included political elements, such as a prophecy that an earthquake that occurred at night would confuse people, who would then treat the emperor with disdain.<ref name="angelov449">{{harvnb|Ангелов et al.|1982|p=449}}</ref> The authorities condemned apocryphal literature and included such titles in an index of banned books.<ref name="angelov449"/> Nonetheless, apocryphs spread in Russia; the 16th century Russian noble ] called them "Bulgarian fables".<ref name="angelov449"/>


==See also== ==See also==
]
{{Portal|Bulgarian Empire|Middle Ages}}

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==Footnotes== ==Notes==
{{Cnote|a|Unlike the Byzantine Empire, the taxes in the First Bulgarian Empire were paid in kind.<ref name="bg342"/>}}
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Cnote|b|Peter I (r. 927–969) was the first Bulgarian ruler who received official recognition of his imperial title by the Byzantines and enjoyed great popularity during the Byzantine rule. Two other rebel leaders were proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria under the name Peter before Theodore.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=144}}</ref>}}
{{Cnote|c|The Roman and the ]s were referred to by Western Europeans as "Romania".<ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=1805}}</ref> The term "Franks" (in Bulgarian ''фръзи'', in Greek ''frankoi'') was used by the medieval Bulgarians and Byzantines to describe the whole Catholic population of Europe and the subjects of the Latin Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=803}}</ref>}}
{{Cnote|d|There is no information about territorial changes in the negotiations but many historians suggest that the Serbs occupied Niš at that time.<ref name="f272"/>}}
{{Cnote|e|When there was no legitimate heir of the deceased monarch it was customary that the nobility would elect an emperor among themselves. ] (r. 1257–1277), ] (r. 1280–1292) and ] (r. 1323–1330) were all elected emperors by the nobility.<ref name="bakalov403"/>}}


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}}
* {{cite book | ref={{harvid|Павлов |2008}}
| title = Българското средновековие. Познато и непознато (The Bulgarian Middle Ages. Known and Unknown)
| last = Павлов (Pavlov)
| first = Пламен (Plamen)
| year = 2008
| language = bg
| publisher = Абагар (Abagar)
| location = Велико Търново (Veliko Tarnovo)
| isbn = 978-954-427-796-3
}}
* {{cite book | ref={{harvid|Петров |Гюзелев |1978}}
| title = Христоматия по история на България. Том 2. Същинско средновековие XII–XIV век (Reader on the History of Bulgaria. Volume 2. High Middle Ages XII–XIV centuries)
| last1 = Петров (Petrov)
| first1 = П. (P.)
| first2 = Васил (Vasil)
| last2 = Гюзелев (Gyuzelev)
| year = 1978
| language = bg
| publisher = Издателство Наука и изкуство
| location = София (Sofia)
}}
* {{cite book | ref={{harvid|Радушев |Жеков |1999}}
| title = Каталог на българските средновековни монети IX–XV век (Catalogue of the Medieval Bulgarian coins IX–XV centuries)
| last1 = Радушев (Radushev)
| first1 = Ангел (Angel)
| first2 = Господин (Gospodin)
| last2 = Жеков (Zhekov)
| year = 1999
| language = bg
| publisher = Агато (Anubis)
| isbn = 954-8761-45-9
}}
* {{cite book | ref={{harvid|Фоменко |2011}}
| title = Образ мира на старинных портоланах. Причерноморье. Конец XIII – XVII |trans-title = The Image of the World on Old Portolans. The Black Sea Littoral from the End of the 13th – the 17th Centuries
| last = Фоменко (Fomenko)
| first = Игорь Константинович (Igor K.)
| chapter = Карты-реконструкции = Reconstruction maps
| year = 2011
| language = ru
| publisher = "Индрик" (Indrik)
| location = Moscow
| isbn = 978-5-91674-145-2
}}
* {{cite book | ref={{harvid|Цончева |1974}}
| title = Търновска книжовна школа. 1371–1971 (Tarnovo Literary School. 1371–1971)
| last = Цончева (Tsoncheva)
| first = М. (M.)
| year = 1974
| language = bg
| location = София (Sofia)
}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Second Bulgarian Empire}}
* {{cite web |url= http://sitemaker.umich.edu/mladjov/files/bulgarian_rulers.pdf |title= Detailed List of Bulgarian Rulers |last=Mladjov |first=Ian |access-date=26 February 2012}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.archivesforbalkans.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0015&g=|title=Средновековна България (VII–XIV в.) (Medieval Bulgaria VII–XIV centuries)|last=Стоименов|first=Димитър|language=bg|publisher=Държавна агенция "Архиви" (State Agency "Archives"|access-date=26 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120129231054/http://www.archivesforbalkans.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0015&g=|archive-date=29 January 2012|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.archivesforbalkans.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0017&n=000001&g=|title=Грамота на цар Иван Асен ІІ, даваща свободен достъп на търговците от Дубровник във всички области на българското царство (1230 г.) (Charter of emperor Ivan Asen II giving free access to the merchants of Dubrovnik to all provinces of the Bulgarian Empire, 1230)|language=bg|publisher=Държавна агенция "Архиви" (State Agency "Archives"|access-date=26 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108025637/http://www.archivesforbalkans.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0017&n=000001&g=|archive-date=8 November 2014|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.bg-patriarshia.bg/index.php?file=history.xml|title=История на Българската православна църква (History of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church)|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=Официален сайт на Българската патриарпия (Official Site of the Bulgarian Patriarchate)|language=bg|access-date=2 February 2014}}


{{Bulgaria topics}}
{{Bulgarian Empire}} {{Bulgarian Empire}}
{{Bulgaria topics}}
{{Empires}} {{Empires}}
{{Middle Ages}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2011}}
{{Portal bar|Bulgaria|Middle Ages|Christianity}}
{{commons category|Second Bulgarian Empire}}
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Latest revision as of 07:01, 10 December 2024

Medieval Bulgarian state (1185–1396)

Bulgarian EmpireЦ︢рьство блъгарское
1185–1396
Flag of Second Bulgarian Empire Top: Flag according to Dulcert's portolan (c. 1325)
Bottom: Flag according to Soler's portolan (c. 1380) Shield of the Tsar's Watch in Tarnovo, end of 14th century of Second Bulgarian Empire Shield of the Tsar's Watch in Tarnovo, end of 14th century
Second Bulgarian Empire under Ivan Asen IISecond Bulgarian Empire under Ivan Asen II
CapitalTarnovo
(1185–1393)
Nikopol
(1393–1395)
Vidin (1356/1386 as capital of the Tsardom of Vidin)
Common languages
Religion Bulgarian Orthodoxy (official, 1204–1235 in the union with Rome)
Bogomilism (banned)
Demonym(s)Bulgarian
GovernmentMonarchy
Tsar (Emperor) 
• 1185–1197 Peter IV (first)
• 1397–1422 Constantine II of Bulgaria (last)
Historical eraMiddle Ages
• Reestablishment 1185
• Fall under Ottoman rule 1396
Area
1230293,000 km (113,000 sq mi)
Preceded by Succeeded by
First Bulgarian Empire
Bulgaria (theme)
Ottoman Bulgaria
Tsardom of Vidin
Despotate of Dobruja
Despotate of Lovech
Wallachia
Today part ofBulgaria
Greece
Romania

The Second Bulgarian Empire (Middle Bulgarian: Ц(а)рьство бл(ъ)гарское; Modern Bulgarian: Второ българско царство, romanizedVtoro Balgarsko Tsarstvo) was a medieval Bulgarian state that existed between 1185 and 1396. A successor to the First Bulgarian Empire, it reached the peak of its power under Tsars Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II before gradually being conquered by the Ottomans in the late 14th century.

Until 1256, the Second Bulgarian Empire was the dominant power in the Balkans, defeating the Byzantine Empire in several major battles. In 1205, Emperor Kaloyan defeated the newly established Latin Empire in the Battle of Adrianople. His nephew Ivan Asen II defeated the Despotate of Epiros and made Bulgaria a regional power again. During his reign, Bulgaria spread from the Adriatic to the Black Sea and the economy flourished. In the late 13th century, however, the Empire declined under constant invasions by Mongols, Byzantines, Hungarians, and Serbs, as well as internal unrest and revolts. The 14th century saw a temporary recovery and stability, but also the peak of Balkan feudalism as central authorities gradually lost power in many regions. Bulgaria was divided into three parts on the eve of the Ottoman invasion.

Despite strong Byzantine influence, Bulgarian artists and architects created their own distinctive style. In the 14th century Bulgarian culture, literature, art, and architecture flourished. The capital city Tarnovo, which was considered a "New Constantinople", became the country's main cultural hub and the centre of the Eastern Orthodox world for contemporary Bulgarians. After the Ottoman conquest, many Bulgarian clerics and scholars emigrated to Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Russian principalities, where they introduced Bulgarian culture, books, and hesychastic ideas.

Nomenclature

Part of a series on the
History of Bulgaria
Bulgaria
Main category
flag Bulgaria portal
See also: White Wallachia

The name most frequently used for the empire by contemporaries was Bulgaria, as the state called itself. During Kaloyan's reign, the state was sometimes known as being of both Bulgarians and Vlachs. Pope Innocent III and other foreigners such as the Latin Emperor Henry mentioned the state as Bulgaria and the Bulgarian Empire in official letters.

In modern historiography, the state is called the Second Bulgarian Empire, Second Bulgarian Tsardom, or the Second Bulgarian Kingdom to distinguish it from the First Bulgarian Empire. An alternative name used in connection with the pre-mid 13th century period is the Empire of Vlachs and Bulgarians; variant names include the Vlach–Bulgarian Empire, the Bulgarian–Wallachian Empire, or the Romanian–Bulgarian Empire; the latter name was used exclusively in Romanian historiography.

However, Arabic chronicles from the 13th century had used only the name of Wallachia instead of Bulgaria and gave the Arabic coordinates of Wallachia and specified that Walachia was named "al-Awalak" and the dwellers "ulaqut" or "ulagh".

Background

In 1018, when the Byzantine emperor Basil II (r.  976–1025) conquered the First Bulgarian Empire, he ruled it cautiously. The existing tax system, laws, and the power of low-ranking nobility remained unchanged until his death in 1025. The autocephalous Bulgarian Patriarchate was subordinated to the Ecumenical Patriarch in Constantinople and downgraded to an archbishopric centred in Ohrid, while retaining its autonomy and dioceses. Basil appointed the Bulgarian John I Debranin as its first archbishop, but his successors were Byzantines. The Bulgarian aristocracy and tsar's relatives were given various Byzantine titles and transferred to the Asian parts of the Empire. Despite hardships, the Bulgarian language, literature, and culture survived; surviving period texts refer to and idealize the Bulgarian Empire. Most of the newly conquered territories were included in the themes Bulgaria, Sirmium, and Paristrion.

As the Byzantine Empire declined under Basil's successors, invasions of Pechenegs and rising taxes contributed to increasing discontent, which resulted in several major uprisings in 1040–41, the 1070s, and the 1080s. The initial centre of the resistance was the theme of Bulgaria, in what is now Macedonia, where the massive Uprising of Peter Delyan (1040–41) and the Uprising of Georgi Voiteh (1072) took place. Both were quelled with great difficulty by Byzantine authorities. These were followed by rebellions in Paristrion and Thrace. During the Komnenian Restoration and the temporary stabilisation of the Byzantine Empire in the first half of the 12th century, the Bulgarians were pacified and no major rebellions took place until later in the century.

History

Rebellion

See also: Uprising of Asen and Peter

The disastrous rule of the last Komnenian emperor Andronikos I (r. 1183–85) worsened the situation of the Bulgarian peasantry and nobility. The first act of his successor Isaac II Angelos was to impose an extra tax to finance his wedding. In 1185, two aristocrat brothers from Tarnovo, Theodore and Asen, asked the emperor to provide them a relatively poor pronoia in the Balkan Mountains, in exchange for military service. The emperor refused, resulting in a heated argument which saw Asen struck across the face. Upon their return to Tarnovo, the brothers commissioned the construction of a church dedicated to Saint Demetrius of Salonica. They showed the populace a celebrated icon of the saint, who they claimed had left Thessalonica to support the Bulgarian cause and called for a rebellion. That act had the desired effect on the religious population, who enthusiastically engaged in a rebellion against the Byzantines. Theodore, the elder brother, was crowned Emperor of Bulgaria under the name Peter IV, after the sainted Peter I (r.927–969). Almost all of Bulgaria to the north of the Balkan Mountains—the region known as Moesia—immediately joined the rebels, who also secured the assistance of the Cumans, a Turkic tribe inhabiting lands north of the Danube river. The Cumans soon became an important part of the Bulgarian army, playing a major role in the successes that followed. As soon as the rebellion broke out, Peter IV attempted to seize the old capital of Preslav but failed; he declared Tarnovo the capital of Bulgaria.

A medieval church
The Church of St Demetrius in Tarnovo, built by Asen and Peter in the beginning of the uprising

From Moesia, the Bulgarians launched attacks in northern Thrace while the Byzantine army was fighting with the Normans, who had attacked Byzantine possessions in the Western Balkans and sacked Thessalonica, the Empire's second largest city. The Byzantines reacted in mid-1186, when Isaac II organized a campaign to crush the rebellion before it spread further. The Bulgarians had secured the passes but the Byzantine army found its way across the mountains due to a solar eclipse. Once the Byzantines reached the plains, the rebels did not risk a confrontation with the larger, better-organized force. Peter IV pretended he was willing to submit, while Asen travelled to the north of the Danube to raise an army. Contented, the Byzantine emperor burned the Bulgarians' crops and returned to Constantinople. Soon after, Asen crossed back over the Danube with Cuman reinforcements, declaring he would continue the struggle until all Bulgarian lands were liberated. A new Byzantine army was assembled under the command of the emperor's uncle John Doukas Angelos, but as Isaac II feared he would be overthrown, Doukas was replaced by John Kantakouzenos, a blind man ineligible for the throne. The Bulgarians attacked Kantakouzenos' camp during the night, killing a large number of soldiers. In mid-1186, another army under the general Alexios Branas was sent in. However, instead of fighting the rebels, Branas turned to Constantinople to claim the throne for himself; he was murdered shortly afterwards. Taking advantage of the chaos, the Bulgarians raided northern Thrace, looting the countryside before Byzantine forces could counterattack. On one occasion, the two armies confronted each other near the fortress of Lardea in an indecisive battle; the Bulgarians kept their plunder and retreated untroubled to the north of the Balkan mountains.

In the late 1186, Isaac II launched his second campaign against Bulgaria. His army was forced to spend the winter in Sofia, giving the Bulgarians time to prepare for the invasion. Early the following year, the Byzantines besieged Lovech but could not seize it; they signed an armistice that de facto recognized Bulgarian independence. In 1189, when the leader of the Third Crusade, emperor Frederick I Barbarossa was at the brink of war with the Byzantines, Asen and Peter IV offered him an army of 40,000 in return for official recognition, but relations between the Crusaders and the Byzantines eventually improved. In 1190, Isaac II led another anti-Bulgarian campaign that ended in a catastrophic defeat at the Tryavna Pass. The emperor barely escaped with his life; the Imperial treasury, including the crown and the cross, were captured by the victorious Bulgarians. After their success, Asen was crowned emperor and became known as Ivan Asen I. Peter IV voluntarily stepped down to make way for his more energetic brother; Peter IV retained his title but Ivan Asen assumed authority.

In the next four years, the focus of the war shifted to the south of the Balkan mountains. Ivan Asen's strategy of swiftly striking in different locations paid off, and he soon took control of the important cities Sofia and Niš to the south-west, clearing the way to Macedonia. In 1194, the Byzantines gathered a huge force composed of the eastern and western armies, but were defeated at the Battle of Arcadiopolis. Unable to resist, Isaac II tried to ally with the Hungarian king Béla III and make a joint attack against Bulgaria, but was deposed and blinded by his brother Alexios III Angelos. The Byzantines tried to negotiate peace but Ivan Asen demanded the return of all Bulgarian lands and the war continued. In 1196, the Byzantine army was again defeated at Serres, far to the south. Upon his return to Tarnovo, Ivan Asen was murdered by his cousin Ivanko allegedly in a plot inspired by Constantinople. Peter IV besieged Tarnovo and Ivanko fled to the Byzantine Empire, where he was made governor of Philippopolis. Peter IV was murdered less than a year after his brother's death.

Rise

A map of the Bulgarian Empire in the late 12th century
A map of the Bulgarian Empire, showing territorial extent and the campaigns between 1185 and 1197
Ruins of a church
The Church of the Holy Forty Martyrs where Kaloyan was buried

The throne was succeeded by Kaloyan, Asen's and Peter IV's youngest brother. An ambitious and ruthless ruler, he wanted to gain international recognition and to complete the liberation of Bulgaria. Kaloyan also wanted revenge against the Byzantines for blinding 14,000 of emperor Samuel's soldiers. Kaloyan called himself Romanoktonos (Roman-slayer) after Basil II, who was called Bulgaroktonos (Bulgar-slayer). He quickly allied himself with his brother's murderer, Ivanko. The Byzantines killed Ivanko, but the Bulgarians took the city of Constantia. In 1201, Kaloyan captured Varna, the last Byzantine stronghold in Moesia, which was defended by a large garrison. Despite capturing the city at Easter, Kaloyan ordered every Byzantine to be thrown in the moat. He then negotiated peace with Byzantines, securing Bulgarian gains in early 1202. While the Bulgarians were occupied in the south, the Hungarian king Andrew II and his Serbian vassal Vukan had annexed Belgrade, Braničevo, and Niš, but after negotiating peace, Kaloyan turned his attention to the north-west. In 1203, the Bulgarians pushed the Serbs out of Niš, defeated the Hungarian army in several battles along the valley of the Morava river, and recaptured their former territory.

Kaloyan knew the Byzantines would never recognize his imperial title; he began negotiations with Pope Innocent III. He based the claims on his predecessors in the First Bulgarian Empire; Simeon I, Peter I, and Samuel. The Pope was willing to recognize Kaloyan as king on the condition the Bulgarian Church would submit to Rome. After lengthy negotiations in which both acted diplomatically but without changing their positions, Kaloyan was crowned king in late 1204. Archbishop Basil was proclaimed Primate. Kaloyan had no intention of submitting to that decision; he sent the Pope a letter expressing his gratitude for the Imperial title he had received and the elevation of the Bulgarian Church to a Patriarchate. Eventually the Papacy tacitly accepted the Bulgarian position regarding the Imperial title. The union between Bulgaria and Rome remained strictly official; the Bulgarians did not change their Orthodox rites and traditions.

A map of the Bulgarian Empire in the mid 13th century
A map showing the greatest territorial extension of the Second Bulgarian Empire during the reign of Ivan Asen II (1218–1241)

Several months before Kaloyan's coronation, the leaders of the Fourth Crusade turned on the Byzantine Empire and captured Constantinople, creating the Latin Empire. The Bulgarians tried to establish friendly relations with the Latins but were rebuffed and the Latins claimed their lands despite Papal recognition. Facing a common enemy, Kaloyan and the Byzantine aristocracy in Thrace made an alliance and the latter promised they would accept Kaloyan as their emperor. The decisive battle between the Bulgarian army and the Crusaders took place on 14 April 1205, at Adrianople, at which the Latins were defeated and their emperor Baldwin I was captured. The battle was a blow to the newly founded Latin Empire, which descended into chaos. After their victory, the Bulgarians retook most of Thrace, including the important city of Philippopolis. The unexpected Bulgarian successes caused the Byzantine nobility to plot against Kaloyan and ally themselves with the Latins. The plot in Tarnovo was quickly discovered; Kaloyan made brutal reprisals against the Byzantines in Thrace. The campaign against the Latins also continued; in 1206, the Bulgarians were victorious at the battle of Rusion and conquered a number of towns in Eastern Thrace. The following year, Boniface I, the King of Salonica, was killed in battle, but Kaloyan was murdered before he could begin the assault on the capital.

Kaloyan was succeeded by his cousin Boril, who tried to pursue his predecessor's policies but did not have his capability. His army was defeated by the Latins at Philippopolis, reversing most of Kaloyan's gains. Boril failed to maintain the integrity of the empire; his brother Strez took most of Macedonia for himself, Alexius Slav seceded his territory in the Rhodopes; in return for help suppressing a major rebellion in 1211, Boril was forced to cede Belgrade and Braničevo to Hungary. A campaign against Serbia in 1214 also ended in defeat.

I waged war in Romania, defeated the Greek army, and captured the Lord Emperor Theodore Comnenus himself and all his boyars. And I conquered all the land from Adrianople to Durazzo, Greek, Serbia and Albanian alike. The Franks hold only the cities in the vicinity of Constantinople itself. But even they are under the authority of my empire since they have no other emperor but me, and only thanks to me do they survive, for thus God has decreed.

Tarnovo inscription of Ivan Asen II in the Church of the Holy Forty Martyrs on the aftermath of the battle of Klokotnitsa.

As a result of the growing discontent with his policy, Boril was overthrown in 1218 by Ivan Asen II, son of Ivan Asen I, who had lived in exile after Kaloyan's death. After his coronation, Ivan Asen II arranged a wedding with Anna Maria, daughter of the Hungarian king Andrew II, and received the captured cities Belgrade and Braničevo as a dowry. He then signed an alliance with Theodore Komnenos, ruler of the most powerful Byzantine successor state, the Despotate of Epirus. With his northern border secured by the treaty, Theodore Komnenos conquered Salonica, greatly reducing the size of the Latin Empire. In 1225, Theodore proclaimed himself emperor. By 1228, the situation for the Latins became desperate; they entered into negotiations with Bulgaria, promising a marriage between the under-age emperor Baldwin II and Ivan Asen II's daughter Helena. This marriage would have made the Bulgarian emperor a regent in Constantinople, but in the meantime the Latins offered the regency to the French nobleman John of Brienne. Concerned with the actions of the Bulgarians, while marching on Constantinople in 1230, Theodore Komnenos invaded Bulgaria with a huge army. Surprised, Ivan Asen II gathered a small force and moved to the south to engage them. Instead of a banner, he used the peace treaty with Theodore's oath and seal stuck on his spear and won a major victory in the Battle of Klokotnitsa. Theodore Komnenos was captured along with his whole court and most of the surviving troops. Ivan Asen II released all ordinary soldiers and marched on the Epirote–controlled territories, where all cities and towns from Adrianople to Durazzo on the Adriatic Sea surrendered and recognized his rule. Theodore's brother Michael II Komnenos Doukas was allowed to rule in Salonica over the southern areas of the despotate as a Bulgarian vassal. It is possible Serbia accepted Bulgarian suzerainty at that time to counter the threat from Catholic Hungary.

In 1231, when John of Brienne arrived in Constantinople, Ivan Asen II allied with the Nicaean Empire against the Latins. After the Nicaeans recognized the Bulgarian Patriarchate in 1235, Ivan Asen II broke his union with the Papacy. The joint campaign against the Latins was successful, but they failed to capture Constantinople. With John of Brienne's death two years later, Ivan Asen II—who could have again become a regent of Baldwin II—decided to end his cooperation with Nicaea. His decision was further based on the assumption that after an allied success, Constantinople would again have become the centre of a restored Byzantine Empire, with the Nicaean dynasty as a ruling house. The Bulgarian–Latin cooperation was short-lived; Ivan Asen II remained at peace with his southern neighbours until the end of his reign. Shortly before his death in 1241, Ivan Asen II defeated part of the Mongol army returning to the east after a devastating attack on Poland and Hungary.

Decline

See also: Uprising of Ivaylo
A fresco in a church
Emperor Constantine Tikh and his first wife Irene, fresco from the Boyana Church

Ivan Asen II was succeeded by his infant son Kaliman I. Despite the initial success against the Mongols, the regency of the new emperor decided to avoid further raids and chose to pay them tribute instead. The lack of a strong monarch and increasing rivalries among the nobility caused Bulgaria to rapidly decline. Its main rival Nicaea avoided Mongol raids and gained power in the Balkans. After the death of 12-year-old Kaliman I in 1246, the throne was succeeded by several short-reigned rulers. The weakness of the new government was exposed when the Nicaean army conquered large areas in southern Thrace, the Rhodopes, and Macedonia—including Adrianople, Tsepina, Stanimaka, Melnik, Serres, Skopje, and Ohrid—meeting little resistance. The Hungarians also exploited Bulgarian weakness, occupying Belgrade and Braničevo. The Bulgarians reacted as late as 1253, invading Serbia and regaining the Rhodopes the following year. However, Michael II Asen's indecisiveness allowed the Nicaeans to regain all of their lost territory, with the exception of Tsepina. In 1255, the Bulgarians quickly regained Macedonia, whose Bulgarian population preferred the rule of Tarnovo to that of the Nicaeans. All gains were lost in 1256, after the Bulgarian representative Rostislav Mikhailovich betrayed his cause and reaffirmed Nicaean control over the disputed areas. This major setback cost the emperor's life and led to a period of instability and civil war between several claimants to the throne until 1257, when the boyar of Skopje Constantine Tikh emerged as a victor.

The new emperor had to deal with multiple foreign threats. In 1257, the Latins attacked and seized Messembria but could not hold the town. More serious was the situation to the north-west, where the Hungarians supported Rostislav, the self-proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria in Vidin. In 1260, Constantine Tikh recovered Vidin and occupied the Severin Banat, but the next year a Hungarian counterattack forced the Bulgarians to retreat to Tarnovo, restoring Vidin to Rostislav. The city was soon controlled by the Bulgarian noble Jacob Svetoslav, but by 1266 he also styled himself emperor. The restoration of the Byzantine Empire under the ambitious Michael VIII Palaiologos further worsened Bulgaria's situation. A major Byzantine invasion in 1263 led to the loss of the coastal towns Messembria and Anchialus, and several cities in Thrace—including Philippopolis. Unable to effectively resist, Constantine Tikh organized a joint Bulgarian–Mongol campaign, but after ravaging Thrace the Mongols returned north of the Danube. The emperor became crippled after a hunting accident in the early 1260s, and fell under the influence of his wife Maria Palaiologina, whose constant intrigues fueled divisions among the nobility.

A map of the Bulgarian Empire in the middle of 13th century
Bulgarian Empire (in dark green) and Southeastern Europe in 1265

Constant Mongol raids, economic difficulties, and the emperor's illness led to a massive popular uprising in the north-east in 1277. The rebel army, led by the swineherd Ivaylo, defeated the Mongols twice, greatly boosting Ivaylo's popularity. Ivaylo then turned on and defeated the regular army under the command of Constantine Tikh. He personally killed the emperor, claiming the latter did nothing to defend his honour. Fearing a revolt in Byzantium, and willing to exploit the situation, the emperor Michael VIII sent an army led by Ivan Asen III, a Bulgarian pretender to the throne, but the rebels reached Tarnovo first. Constantine Tikh's widow Maria married Ivaylo and he was proclaimed emperor. After the Byzantines failed, Michael VIII turned to the Mongols, who invaded Dobrudzha and defeated Ivaylo's army, forcing him to retreat to Drastar, where he withstood a three-month siege. After his defeat, Ivaylo was betrayed by the Bulgarian nobility, who opened the gates of Tarnovo to Ivan Asen III. In early 1279, Ivaylo broke off the siege at Drastar and besieged the capital. The Byzantines sent a 10,000-strong army to relieve Ivan Asen III, but suffered defeat by Ivaylo at the battle of Devina. Another army of 5,000 had a similar fate, forcing Ivan Asen III to flee. Ivaylo's situation did not improve, however—after two years of constant warfare his support was diminished, the Mongols were not decisively defeated, and the nobility remained hostile. By the end of 1280, Ivaylo sought refuge with his former enemies the Mongols, who under Byzantine influence killed him. The nobility chose the powerful noble and ruler of Cherven, George I Terter, as emperor. He reigned for twelve years, bringing even stronger Mongol influence and the loss of most of the remaining lands in Thrace to the Byzantines. This period of instability and uncertainty continued until 1300, when for a few months the Mongol Chaka ruled in Tarnovo.

Temporary stabilization

A map of the Bulgarian Empire in the early 14th century
Bulgaria under Theodore Svetoslav (1300-1322)

In 1300, Theodore Svetoslav, George I's eldest son, took advantage of a civil war in the Golden Horde, overthrew Chaka, and presented his head to the Mongol khan Toqta. This brought an end to Mongol interference in Bulgarian domestic affairs and secured Southern Bessarabia as far as Bolgrad to Bulgaria. The new emperor began to rebuild the country's economy, subdued many of the semi-independent nobles, and executed as traitors those he held responsible for assisting the Mongols, including Patriarch Joachim III. The Byzantines, interested in Bulgaria's continuous instability, supported pretenders Michael and Radoslav with their armies, but were defeated by Theodore Svetoslav's uncle Aldimir, the despot of Kran. Between 1303 and 1304, the Bulgarians launched several campaigns and retook many towns in north-eastern Thrace. The Byzantines tried to counter the Bulgarian advance but suffered a major defeat in the battle of Skafida. Unable to change the status quo, they were forced to make peace with Bulgaria in 1307, acknowledging Bulgarian gains. Theodore Svetoslav spent the rest of his reign in peace with his neighbors. He maintained cordial relations with Serbia and in 1318, its king Stephen Milutin, paid a visit to Tarnovo. The years of peace brought economic prosperity and boosted commerce; Bulgaria became a major exporter of agricultural commodities, especially wheat.

During the early 1320s, tensions between Bulgaria and the Byzantines rose as the latter descended into a civil war and the new emperor George II Terter seized Philippopolis. In the confusion following George II's unexpected death in 1322 without leaving a successor, the Byzantines recaptured the city and other Bulgarian-seized towns in northern Thrace. The energetic despot of Vidin, Michael Shishman, was elected emperor the next year; he immediately turned on the Byzantine emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos, regaining the lost lands. In late 1324, the two monarchs signed a peace treaty, strengthened by a marriage between the Bulgarian ruler and Theodora Palaiologina. Michael Shishman divorced his Serbian wife Anna Neda, causing a deterioration of relations with Serbia. This change of political course is explained by the rapid growth of Serbian power and its penetration into Macedonia.

The Bulgarians and the Byzantines agreed to a joint campaign against Serbia, but it took five years until the differences and tensions between Bulgaria and Byzantium were overcome. Michael Shishman gathered 15,000 troops and invaded Serbia. He engaged the Serbian king Stephen Dečanski, who commanded an approximately equal force, near the border town of Velbazhd. The two rulers, both expecting reinforcements, agreed to a one-day truce but when a Catalan detachment under the king's son Stephen Dušan arrived, the Serbs broke their word. The Bulgarians were defeated in the ensuing Battle of Velbazhd and their emperor perished. Despite their victory, the Serbs did not risk an invasion of Bulgaria and the two sides agreed to peace. As a result, Ivan Stephen, the eldest son of the dead emperor by his Serbian wife, succeeded him in Tarnovo and was deposed after a brief rule. Bulgaria did not lose territory but could not stop the Serbian expansion in Macedonia.

After the disaster at Velbazhd, the Byzantines attacked Bulgaria and seized a number of towns and castles in northern Thrace. Their success ended in 1332, when the new Bulgarian emperor Ivan Alexander defeated them in the battle of Rusokastro, recovering the captured territories. In 1344, the Bulgarians entered the Byzantine civil war of 1341–47 on the side of John V Palaiologos against John VI Kantakouzenos, capturing nine towns along the Maritsa river and in the Rhodope Mountains, including Philippopolis. That acquisition marked the last significant territorial expansion of medieval Bulgaria, but also led to the first attacks on Bulgarian soil by the Ottoman Turks, who were allied with Kantakouzenos.

Fall

A medieval fortress
The fortress of Baba Vida in Vidin

The attempts of Ivan Alexander to fight off the Ottomans in the late 1340s and early 1350s failed after two defeats in which his eldest son and successor Michael Asen IV and his second son Ivan Asen IV may have been killed. The emperor's relations with his other son Ivan Sratsimir, who had been installed as the ruler of Vidin, deteriorated after 1349, when Ivan Alexander divorced his wife to marry Sarah-Theodora, a converted Jew. When their child Ivan Shishman was designated an heir to the throne, Ivan Sratsimir proclaimed independence.

In 1366, Ivan Alexander refused to grant passage to the Byzantine emperor John V Palaiologos, and the troops of the Savoyard crusade attacked the Bulgarian Black Sea coast. They seized Sozopolis, Messembria, Anchialus, and Emona, causing heavy casualties and unsuccessfully laying siege to Varna. The Bulgarians eventually granted passage to John V, but the lost towns were handed over to the Byzantines. To the north-west, the Hungarians attacked and occupied Vidin in 1365. Ivan Alexander reconquered his province four years later, allied with his de jure vassals Vladislav I of Wallachia and Dobrotitsa. The death of Ivan Alexander in 1371 left the country irrevocably divided between Ivan Shishman in Tarnovo, Ivan Sratsimir in Vidin, and Dobrotitsa in Karvuna. The 14th century German traveler Johann Schiltberger described these lands as follows:

I was in three regions, and all three were called Bulgaria. The first Bulgaria extends there, where you pass from Hungary through the Iron Gate. Its capital is called Vidin. The other Bulgaria lies opposite Wallachia, and its capital is called Tarnovo. The third Bulgaria is there, where the Danube flows into the sea. Its capital is called Kaliakra.

Second Bulgarian Empire, 1331–1371
A depiction from a medieval manuscript
The defeat of the anti-Ottoman coalition in the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396 was the final blow leading to the fall of the Bulgarian Empire.

On 26 September 1371, the Ottomans defeated a large Christian army led by the Serbian brothers Vukašin Mrnjavčević and Jovan Uglješa in the Battle of Chernomen. They immediately turned on Bulgaria and conquered northern Thrace, the Rhodopes, Kostenets, Ihtiman, and Samokov, effectively limiting the authority of Ivan Shishman in the lands to the north of the Balkan mountains and the Valley of Sofia. Unable to resist, the Bulgarian monarch was forced to become an Ottoman vassal, and in return he recovered some of the lost towns and secured ten years of uneasy peace.

The Ottoman raids renewed in the early 1380s, culminating in the fall of Sofia. Simultaneously, Ivan Shishman had been engaged in war against Wallachia since 1384. According to the Anonymous Bulgarian Chronicle, he killed the Wallachian voivode Dan I of Wallachia in September 1386. He also maintained uneasy relations with Ivan Sratsimir, who had broken his last ties with Tarnovo in 1371 and had separated the dioceses of Vidin from the Tarnovo Patriarchate. The two brothers did not cooperate to repel the Ottoman invasion. According to historian Konstantin Jireček, the brothers were engaged in a bitter conflict over Sofia. Ivan Shishman reneged on his vassal obligation to support the Ottomans with troops during their campaigns. Instead, he used every opportunity to participate in Christian coalitions with the Serbs and the Hungarians, provoking massive Ottoman invasions in 1388 and 1393.

Despite strong resistance, the Ottomans seized a number of important towns and fortresses in 1388, and five years later they captured Tarnovo after a three-month siege. Ivan Shishman died in 1395 when the Ottomans, led by Bayezid I, took his last fortress Nikopol. In 1396, Ivan Sratsimir joined the Crusade of the Hungarian king Sigismund, but after the Christian army was defeated in the Battle of Nicopolis the Ottomans immediately marched on Vidin and seized it, bringing an end to the medieval Bulgarian state. Resistance continued under Constantine and Fruzhin until 1422. The former was referred to by king Sigismund as the "distinguished Constantine, glorious Emperor of Bulgaria".

Administration, territorial division, society

The Second Bulgarian Empire was a hereditary monarchy ruled by a Tsar—the Bulgarian word for Emperor that originated in the 10th century during the First Bulgarian Empire. The monarchs of Bulgaria styled themselves, "In Christ the Lord Faithful Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians" or variations, sometimes including "...and Romans, Greeks, or Vlachs". The term all Bulgarians was added in the 14th century following the loss of many Bulgarian-populated territories and signified that the monarch in Tarnovo was the emperor of all Bulgarian people, even those who lived beyond the country's political borders.

A medieval charter
The Medieval Bulgarian royal charters, such as the Rila Charter of Ivan Shishman issued in 1378, are an important source on medieval Bulgarian society and administrative posts.

The Emperor held supreme power over secular and religious affairs in an autocracy; his personal abilities played an important role in the country's well-being. When the monarch was an infant, the government was headed by a regency that included the mother-empress, the Patriarch, and senior members of the ruling dynasty. As the processes of feudal fragmentation accelerated in the 14th century, it became customary for the monarch's sons to receive imperial titles during their father's lifetime; sons were styled co-rulers or junior emperors.

Unlike the First Empire, the administration during the Second Bulgarian Empire was heavily influenced by the Byzantine system of administration. Most of the titles of the nobility, the court, and the administration were directly adopted from their Byzantine counterparts in Byzantine Greek, or were translated into Bulgarian. There were some differences in the ranking systems between the two countries—there are few surviving sources about the precise obligations, insignia, or ceremonial affairs of the medieval Bulgarian administration. The Bolyar Council included the greater bolyars and the Patriarch; it discussed issues about external and internal policies, such as declarations of war, formations of alliances, or the signing of peace treaties. The highest-ranking administrative officials were the great logothete, who had the functions of a first minister, and the protovestiarios, who was responsible for the treasury and finance. High court titles such as despot and sebastokrator were awarded to the Emperor's relatives but were not strictly concerned with administrative functions.

A medieval fortress
Panoramic view of Tarnovo, the capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire

The capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire was Tarnovo, which was also the centre of its own administrative unit under the direct authority of the emperor. Bulgaria was divided into provinces, whose numbers varied with the territorial evolution of the country. In surviving primary sources, the provinces were named with the Byzantine term hora or the Bulgarian terms zemya (земя), strana (страна), and oblast (област), usually named after its main city. The provincial governors were titled "duke" or kefalia — both from Byzantine dux and kephale—and were directly appointed by the emperor. The provinces were subdivided into katepanika (sing. katepanikon, from the Byzantine katepanikion), which were ruled by katepans who were subordinated to the dukes. During the reign of Ivan Asen II (1218–41), the provinces included Belgrade, Braničevo, Boruy, Adrianople, Dimotika, Skopje, Prilep, Devol, and Albania.

During the Second Empire, Bulgarian society was divided into three social classes: clergy, nobility, and peasantry. The nobility included the aristocracy: the bolyars, whose origin was the older Bulgarian boilas from the First Empire, the judges, and the "whole army". The bolyars were subdivided into greater and lesser bolyars. The former possessed large estates, which at times included tens and even hundreds of villages, and held high administrative and military posts. The peasants formed the bulk of the third class and were subordinated either under the central authorities or under local feudal lords. With time, the number of the latter increased as a result of the process of feudalization of Bulgaria. The main groups of peasants were paritsi and otrotsi. Both could own land but only the paritsi could inherit property; the latter could not, since it was provided by the feudal lords.

Military

Main article: Medieval Bulgarian army
A medieval fortress
Aerial view of the Shumen fortress, an important stronghold in eastern Bulgaria

The emperor of the Second Bulgarian Empire was commander-in-chief of its army; the second-in-command was the velik (great) voivoda. The detachments of the army were led by a voivoda. The protostrator was responsible for the defence of certain regions and the recruitment of soldiers. In the late 12th century, the army numbered 40,000 men-at-arms. The country could mobilize around 100,000 men in the first decade of the 13th century; Kaloyan reportedly offered Baldwin I, the leader of the Fourth Crusade, 100,000 soldiers to help him take Constantinople. By the end of the 13th century, the military declined and the army was reduced to fewer than 10,000 men—it was recorded that Ivaylo defeated two Byzantine armies of 5,000 and 10,000 men, and that his troops were outnumbered in both cases. Military strength increased with the political stabilization of Bulgaria in the first half of the 14th century; the army numbered 11,000–15,000 troops in the 1330s. The military was well supplied with siege equipment, including battering rams, siege towers, and catapults.

The Bulgarian army used various military tactics, relying on the experience of the soldiers and the peculiarities of the terrain. The Balkan mountains played a significant role in the military strategy and facilitated the country's defence against the strong Byzantine army. During wartime, the Bulgarians would send light cavalry to devastate the enemy lands on a broad front, pillaging villages and small towns, burning the crops, and taking people and cattle. The Bulgarian army was very mobile—for instance for four days before the Battle of Klokotnitsa, it covered a distance three times longer than the Epirote army covered in a week; in 1332, it travelled 230 km (140 miles) in five days.

Inside the fortress there is a large and elite army, its soldiers are heavily built, moustached and look war-hardened, but are used to consume wine and rakia—in a word, jolly fellows.

Ottoman commander Lala Shahin on the garrison of Sofia.

Bulgaria maintained extensive lines of fortresses to protect the country, with the capital Tarnovo in the centre. To the north were lines along both banks of the Danube river. To the south were three lines; the first along the Balkan mountains, the second along Vitosha, northern Rhodope mountains and Sakar mountain, the third along the valley of the river Arda. To the west, a line ran along the valley of the river South Morava.

During the Second Empire, foreign and mercenary soldiers became an important part of the Bulgarian army and its tactics. Since the beginning of the rebellion of Asen and Peter, the light, mobile Cuman cavalry was used effectively against the Byzantines and later the Crusaders. Kaloyan used 14,000 cavalrymen in the Battle of Adrianople. The Cuman leaders entered the ranks of the Bulgarian nobility; some of them received high military or administrative posts in the state. In the 14th century, the Bulgarian army increasingly relied on foreign mercenaries, which included Western knights, Mongols, Ossetians, or Wallachians. Both Michael III Shishman and Ivan Alexander had a 3,000-strong Mongol cavalry detachment in their armies. In the 1350s, emperor Ivan Alexander hired Ottoman bands, as did the Byzantine Emperor. Russians were also hired as mercenaries.

Economy

See also: Medieval Bulgarian coinage
A vessel from a medieval treasure trove
A silver vessel from the 14th century Nikopol treasure

The economy of the Second Bulgarian Empire was based on agriculture, mining, traditional crafts, and trade. Agriculture and livestock breeding remained the mainstays of the Bulgarian economy between the 12th and 14th centuries. Moesia, Zagore, and Dobrudzha were known for rich harvests of grain, including high quality wheat. Production of wheat, barley, and millet was also developed in most regions of Thrace. The main wine-producing areas were Thrace, the Black Sea coast, and the valleys of the Struma and Vardar rivers in Macedonia. Production of vegetables, orchards, and grapes became increasingly important since the beginning of the 13th century. The existence of large forests and pastures was favorable for livestock breeding, mainly in the mountainous and semi-mountainous regions of the country. Sericulture and especially apiculture were well developed. Honey and wax from Zagore were the best-quality bee products in the Byzantine markets and were highly praised. The forests produced wood for cutting (бранища); there were also fenced forests (забели), in which wood-cutting was banned.

Economy of the Second Bulgarian Empire

The increase in the number of towns gave strong impetus to handicrafts, metallurgy, and mining. Processing of crops was traditional; products included bread, cheese, butter, and wine. Salt was extracted from the lagoon near Anchialus. Leathermaking, shoemaking, carpentry, and weaving were prominent crafts. Varna was renowned for the processing of fox fur, which was used for production of luxurious clothes. According to Western European sources, there was an abundance of silk in Bulgaria. The Picardian knight Robert de Clari said that in the dowry of the Bulgarian princess Maria, " ... there was not a single horse that was not covered in red silk fabric, which was so long that dragged for seven or eight steps after each horse. And despite they travelled through mud and bad roads, none of the silk fabrics was torn—everything was preserved in grace and nobility." There were blacksmiths, ironmongers, and engineers who developed catapults, battering rams, and other siege equipment, which was extensively used in the beginning of the 13th century. Metalworking was developed in western Bulgaria—Chiprovtsi, Velbazhd, and Sofia, as well in Tarnovo and Messembria to the east.

A medieval coin
Coin depicting Ivan Alexander with one of his sons, co-emperor Michael Asen IV (right)

Monetary circulation and minting steadily increased throughout the period of the Second Bulgarian Empire, reaching their climax during the reign of Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria (reigned 1331–1371). Along with his recognition by the Pope, emperor Kaloyan (r. 1197–1207) acquired the right to mint coins. Well-organized mints and engraving workshops were set up in the mid-13th century, producing copper, billon, and silver coinage. The reform was initiated by Constantine Tikh Asen (r. 1257–1277) and led to a stabilization of the monetary market in Bulgaria. The Uprising of Ivaylo and the pillage raids of the Mongols in the late 13th century destabilized the coinage, resulting in a tenfold decrease of minting activities. With the stabilization of the empire since 1300, Bulgarian monarchs issued an increased number of coins, including silver ones, but were able to secure the market with domestic coins after the 1330s. The erosion of the central authorities on the eve of the Ottoman invasion gave rise to primitive, anonymous, and crudely-forged counterfeit coins. Along with the Bulgarian coinage, coins from the Byzantine Empire, Latin Empire, Venice, Serbia, the Golden Horde, and the small Balkan principalities were widely used. Due to the increase of production, there was a tendency to limit the circulation of foreign coins by the second half of the 14th century. Coins were minted by some independent or semi-independent Bulgarian lords, such as Jacob Svetoslav and Dobrotitsa.

Religion

Religious policy

A medieval Orthodox cathedral
The Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God in Tarnovo was the seat of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church during the Second Empire. It was part of a larger complex which accommodated the Patriarch.

Following the refoundation of Bulgaria, the recognition of the imperial title of the monarch and the restoration of the Bulgarian Patriarchate became the priority of the Bulgarian foreign policy. The continuous state of war against the Byzantine empire urged Bulgarian rulers to turn to the Papacy. In his correspondence with Pope Innocent III, Kaloyan (r. 1197–1207) demanded imperial title and a Patriarchate, basing his claims on the heritage of the First Bulgarian Empire. In return, Kaloyan promised to accept Papal suzerainty over the Bulgarian Church. The union between Bulgaria and Rome was formalized on 7 October 1205, when Kaloyan was crowned King by a papal legate and the Archbishop Basil of Tarnovo was proclaimed Primate. In a letter to the Pope, Basil styled himself Patriarch, against which Innocent III did not argue. Just like Boris I (r. 852–889) three centuries earlier, Kaloyan pursued a strictly political agenda in his negotiations with the Papacy, without sincere intentions to convert to Roman Catholicism. The union with Rome lasted until 1235 and did not affect the Bulgarian church, which continued its practices of Eastern Orthodox canons and rites.

The ambition of Bulgaria to become the religious centre of the Orthodox world had a prominent place in the Second Empire's state doctrine. After the fall of Constantinople to the knights of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Tarnovo became for a time the main centre of Orthodoxy. The Bulgarian emperors were zealously collecting relics of Christian saints to boost the prestige of their capital. The official recognition of the restored Bulgarian Patriarchate at the Council of Lampsacus in 1235 was a major step in that direction and gave rise to the concept of Tarnovo as a "Second Constantinople". The Patriarchate vigorously opposed the papal initiative to reunite the Orthodox Church with Rome; he criticized the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Byzantine emperor for their apparent willingness to make concessions at the Second Council of Lyon in 1272–74. Patriarch Ignatius was called "pillar of Orthodoxy". Envoys were sent to the Patriarch of Jerusalem to negotiate an anti-Byzantine alliance, which included the other two Eastern Patriarchs, but the mission achieved nothing.

Disputes with the Patriarchate of Constantinople over the legitimacy of the Bulgarian Patriarchate intensified in the 14th century. In 1355, the Ecumenical patriarch Callistus I tried to assert his supremacy over the Bulgarian church and claimed that under the provisions of the Council of Lampsacus it remained subordinated and had to pay annual tribute to Constantinople. These claims were not supported by authentic documents and the Bulgarian religious authorities ignored them.

The structure of the Bulgarian Patriarchate followed the traditions of the First Empire. The head of the Church was the Patriarch of Bulgaria, who was a member of the State Council (Sinklit) and was at times a regent. The patriarch was assisted by a Synod comprising bishops, high-ranking clerics, and sometimes representatives of secular authorities. The Bulgarian Church strictly followed official state policy—Patriarch Joachim III was executed for treason because of suspected links with the Mongols. The territorial extent of the Bulgarian Patriarchate varied according to territorial changes. At its height under the reign of Ivan Asen II (r. 1218–41), it consisted of 14 dioceses; Preslav, Cherven, Lovech, Sofia, Ovech, Drastar, Vidin, Serres, Philippi, Messembria, Braničevo, Belgrade, Niš, and Velbazhd; and the sees of Tarnovo and Ohrid.

Hesychasm

Main article: Hesychasm
A page from a medieval manuscript
A depiction of emperor Ivan Alexander, patron of Hesychasm

Hesychasm (from Greek "stillness, rest, quiet, silence") is an eremitic tradition of prayer in the Eastern Orthodox Church that flourished in the Balkans during the 14th century. A mystical movement, Hesychasm preached a technique of mental prayer that, when repeated with proper breathing, might enable one to see the divine light. Emperor Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71) was impressed by the practice of Hesychasm; he became a patron of Hesychastic monks. In 1335, he gave refuge to Gregory of Sinai and provided funds for the construction of a monastery near Paroria in the Strandzha Mountains in the southeast of the country; it attracted clerics from Bulgaria, Byzantium, and Serbia. Hesychasm established itself as the dominant ideology of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church with the work of the disciple of Gregory of Sinai. Gregory's disciple Theodosius of Tarnovo translated his writing into Bulgarian and reached his peak during the tenure of the last medieval Bulgarian patriarch Euthymius of Tarnovo (1375–94). Theodosius founded the Kilifarevo Monastery near Tarnovo, which became the new Hesychastic and literary centre of the country. Hesychastic intellectuals maintained regular connections with each other regardless of their nationalities, which significantly affected the cultural and religious exchange in the Balkans.

Bogomilism and other heresies

Main article: Bogomilism

Bogomilism, a Gnostic, dualistic sect, was founded in the 10th century during the First Bulgarian Empire. It later spread throughout the Balkans and flourished after the fall of Bulgaria under Byzantine rule. The Eastern Orthodox Church considered the Bogomils, who preached civil disobedience that was particularly alarming for the state authorities, heretics.

Bogomilism saw a major resurge in Bulgaria as a result of the military and political setbacks during the reign of Boril (r. 1207–18). The emperor took swift, decisive measures to suppress the Bogomils; on 11 February 1211 he presided over the first anti-Bogomil synod in Bulgaria, which was held in Tarnovo. During the discussions, the Bogomils were exposed; those who did not return to Orthodoxy were exiled. Despite the extant union with the Roman Catholic Church, the synod followed strictly the canons of the Orthodox Church. In the specially dedicated Book of Boril, the monarch was described as "Orthodox emperor" and the Synod of Tarnovo was added to the list of Orthodox synods. As a result of Boril's actions, the influence of the Bogomils was greatly reduced but was not eradicated.

Many heretical movements, including Adamites and Barlaamism that arrived with exiles from the Byzantine Empire, established themselves in Bulgaria in the 14th century. These movements, along with the Bogomilism and Judaism, were condemned by the Council of Tarnovo in 1360, which was attended by the imperial family, the patriarch, nobles, and clerics. There are no sources about the existence of Bogomils in Bulgaria after 1360, implying the sect had already been weakened and had few followers. Persecution of the remaining Adamites and Barlaamists continued on a smaller scale, headed by Theodosius of Tarnovo and patriarch Euthymius.

Culture

Culture of the Second Bulgarian Empire

The Second Bulgarian Empire was a centre of a thriving culture that reached its peak in the mid-to-late 14th century during the reign of Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71). Bulgarian architecture, arts, and literature spread beyond the borders of Bulgaria into Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and the Russian principalities and affected Slavic culture. Bulgaria was influenced by the contemporaneous Byzantine cultural trends. The main cultural and spiritual centre was Tarnovo, which grew into a "Second Constantinople" or "Third Rome". Bulgarian contemporaries called the city "Tsarevgrad Tarnov", the Imperial city of Tarnovo, after the Bulgarian name for Constantinople—Tsarigrad. Other important cultural hubs included Vidin, Sofia, Messembria, and a large number of monasteries throughout the country.

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School A medieval churchA medieval churchLeft: The Church of Christ Pantocrator in Messembria. Right: The Church of Holy Mother of God in Asen's Fortress

The network of cities in the Second Bulgarian Empire grew in the 13th and 14th centuries; numerous new urban centres rose to prominence. The cities were usually constructed in difficult-to-access locations and generally consisted of an inner and outer town. The nobility lived in the inner town, which included the citadel, while most citizens inhabited the outer town. There were separate neighbourhoods for the nobility, craftsmen, merchants, and foreigners. The capital Tarnovo had three fortified hills—Tsarevets, Trapezitsa, and Momina Krepost, built along the meanders of the Yantra river. Several neighbourhoods along the river's banks including separate quarters for Western Europeans and Jews.

Fortresses were built on hills and plateaus—the Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates said the Bulgarian castles in the Balkan Mountains were situated "at heights above the clouds". They were built with crushed stones welded together with plaster, in contrast to the monumental ensembles in the north-east of the country dating from the period of the First Empire. The gates and the more vulnerable sections were secured with pinnacled towers; these were usually rectangular but there were also irregular, circular, oval, triangular, or horseshoe-shaped towers.

A medieval church
The Church of the Holy Mother of God in Donja Kamenica

Religious architecture was very prestigious; churches were among the most decorated and solid edifices in the country. Throughout the 13th and 14th centuries, basilicas were replaced with cruciform, domed churches with one or three naves. The church's exteriors had rich, decorative ornamentation with alternating belts of stone and brickwork. They were further decorated with green, yellow, and brown ceramic pieces. This feature is seen in several churches in Messembria, including the Church of St John Aliturgetos and the 14th century Church of Christ Pantocrator—which had rows of blind arches, four-leaved floral motifs, triangular ornaments, circular turquoise ceramics, and brick swastika friezes running along the external walls. Every church in Tsarevets—over 20—and many of the 17 churches in Trapezitsa were decorated with similar techniques. A rectangular belfry above the narthex is a typical characteristic of the architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School. Some churches, such as Holy Mother of God in Asen's Fortress built during the Byzantine rule, were reconstructed with belfries.

The Church of the Holy Mother of God in Donja Kamenica in the western part of the Bulgarian Empire (in modern Serbia) is notable for its unusual architectural style. Its twin towers are topped off by sharp-pointed pyramidal elements, with additional sharp-pointed details in each of the pyramids' four corners. The towers and their design were entirely unusual and unprecedented in medieval Bulgarian church architecture and were an influence from Hungary or Transylvania.

A nobility house
The ruins of a noble family's house in Tarnovo

The Imperial Palace in Tarnovo was initially a bolyar castle; it underwent two major reconstructions under Ivan Asen II (r. 1218–41) and Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71). The palace had the shape of an irregular ellipse and a built-up area of 5,000 m (54,000 sq ft). The walls were up to 2 m (6.6 ft) thick. The entrance gates were guarded by round and rectangular towers; the main entrance was located in the round tower of the northern façade. The edifices were built around an inner yard with a richly decorated royal church in the middle. The Patriarch Palace was situated on the highest point of Tsarevets and dominated the city. Its plan resembled that of the Imperial Palace and occupied 3,000 m (32,000 sq ft). A four-cornered bell tower adjoined the Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God. The residential and office sections were located in the southern part of the edifice.

Few examples of nobility houses have survived. To the north of the Imperial Palace, the foundations of a bolyar house from the beginning of the 13th century have been excavated. It had a Г-shaped plan and consisted of a residential area and a small, one-nave church. There were two types of mass dwellings; semi-dug houses and overground houses. The latter were constructed in cities and usually had two stories; the lower floor was built with crushed stones soldered with mud or plaster and the second was built with timber.

Art

Main article: Painting of the Tarnovo Artistic School
A fresco in a church
A depiction of Kaloyan and Desislava, ktitors of the Boyana Church

The mainstream of Bulgarian fine arts in the 13th and 14th centuries is known as the painting of the Tarnovo Artistic School. Despite being influenced by some tendencies of the Palaeogan Renaissance in the Byzantine Empire, Bulgarian painting had unique features; it was first classified as a separate artistic school by the French art historian André Grabar. The school's works had some degree of realism, individualized portraits, and psychological insight. Very little secular art of the Second Empire has survived. Fragments of murals depicting a richly decorated figure were uncovered during excavations in the throne room of the Imperial palace in Tarnovo. The walls of the throne room were probably decorated with images of Bulgarian emperors and empresses.

The frescoes in the Boyana Church near Sofia are an early example of the painting of the Tarnovo Artistic School, dating from 1259; they are among the most complete and best-preserved monuments of Eastern European medieval art. The portraits of the church's ktitors, Kaloyan and Desislava, and of the ruling monarch Constantine Tikh and his wife Irene dressed with ceremonial garments, are especially realistic. The Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo in the north-east of the country contain several churches and chapels that represent the evolution of the Bulgarian art in the 13th and 14th centuries. In paintings in churches of the first period, painted during the reign of Ivan Asen II (r. 1218–41), human figures are depicted in realistic style, with oval faces and fleshy lips. The colours of the clothing are bright, while the 14th century frescoes are in the classical style of the Palaeogan period. Both Boyana Church and the Rock-Hewn Churches of Ivanovo are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

A fresco in a church
Frescos in the Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo

In Tarnovo, no complete painting ensemble has survived. The thirty-five scenes preserved in Holy Forty Martyrs Church feature the mild tones and sense of realism characteristic of the school. Fragments of frescoes were excavated in the ruins of the seventeen churches in Tarnovo's second fortified hill, Trapezitsa; among them were depictions of military figures wearing richly decorated garments. The palace chapel was decorated with mosaics. In western Bulgaria, local characteristics of the remnant art include archaism in the composition and unshaded tones, examples of which are found in locations including Zemen Monastery, the Church of the Holy Mother of God in Donja Kamenica, and the Church of St Peter in Berende.

Many books of the Second Bulgarian Empire contained beautifully crafted miniatures, the most notable examples being the Bulgarian translation of the Manasses Chronicle, the Tetraevangelia of Ivan Alexander, and the Tomić Psalter, which together have 554 miniatures. The style of the miniatures, which depict a variety of theological and secular events and have significant aesthetic value, was influenced by contemporaneous Byzantine works.

The Tarnovo school continued; it enriched the traditions and icon designs of the First Bulgarian Empire. Some notable icons include St Eleusa (1342) from Messembria, which is currently kept in Alexander Nevski Cathedral in Sofia, and St John of Rila (14th century), which is kept in Rila Monastery. Like the Boyana Church frescoes, St John of Rila uses realism and non-canonical design. Some of the preserved icons feature silver platings with enamel images of saints.

Literature

Main articles: Medieval Bulgarian literature and Tarnovo Literary School
A page from a medieval manuscript
A page of the 14th century Tetraevangelia of Ivan Alexander

The main centres of literary activity were churches and monasteries, which provided primary education in basic literacy throughout the country. Some monasteries rose to prominence by providing a more advanced education, which included study of advanced grammar; biblical, theological, and ancient texts; and Greek language. Education was available to laymen; it was not restricted to the clergy. Those who completed the advanced studies were called gramatik (граматик). Books were initially written on parchment, but paper, imported via the port of Varna, was introduced at the beginning of the 14th century. At first, paper was more expensive than parchment, but by the end of the century its cost had fallen, resulting in the production of larger numbers of books.

Few texts from the 12th and 13th centuries have survived. Notable examples from that period include the "Book of Boril", an important source for the history of the Bulgarian Empire, and the Dragan Menaion, which includes the earliest known Bulgarian hymnology and hymn tunes, as well as liturgies for Bulgarian saints John of Rila, Cyril and Methodius, and emperor Peter I. Two poems, written by a Byzantine poet in the court in Tarnovo and dedicated to the wedding of emperor Ivan Asen II and Irene Komnene Doukaina, have survived. The poet compared the emperor to the sun and described him as "more lovely than the day, the most pleasant in appearance".

During the 14th century, literary activities in the Second Empire were supported by the court, and in particular by emperor Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71), which combined with a number of prolific scholars and clergymen, led to a remarkable literary revival known as the Tarnovo Literary School. Literature was also patronized by some nobles and wealthy citizens. Literature included translation of Greek texts and the creation of original compositions, both religious and secular. The religious books included praising epistles, passionals, hagiographies, and hymns. Secular literature included chronicles, poetry, novels and novellas, apocryphical tales, popular tales, such as The Story of Troy and Alexandria, legal works, and works on medicine and natural science.

A page from a medieval manuscript
A page of the 14th century Bulgarian translation of the Manasses Chronicle

The first notable 14th century Bulgarian scholar was Theodosius of Tarnovo (d. 1363), who was influenced by Hesychasm and spread hesyachastic ideas in Bulgaria. His most prominent disciple was Euthymius of Tarnovo (c. 1325 – c. 1403), who was Patriarch of Bulgaria between 1375 and 1393 and founder of the Tarnovo Literary School. A prolific writer, Euthymius oversaw a major linguistic reform that standardized the spelling and grammar of the Bulgarian language. Until the reform, texts often had variations of spelling and grammar use. The model of the reform was not the contemporaneous language but that of the first golden age of Bulgarian culture in the late 9th and early 10th centuries during the First Bulgarian Empire.

The Ottoman conquest of Bulgaria forced many scholars and disciples of Euthymius to emigrate, taking their texts, ideas, and talents to other Orthodox countries—Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and the Russian principalities. So many texts were taken to the Russian lands that scholars speak about a second South Slavonic influence on Russia. The close friend and associate of Euthymius, Cyprian, became Metropolitan of Kiev and All Rus' and took Bulgarian literary models and techniques. Gregory Tsamblak worked in Serbia and Moldavia before assuming a position at Metropolitan of Kiev. He wrote a number of sermons, liturgies, and hagiographies, including a "Praising epistle for Euthymius". Another important Bulgarian émigré was Constantine of Kostenets, who worked in Serbia and whose biography of despot Stefan Lazarević is described by George Ostrogorsky as "the most important historical work of old Serbian literature".

Apocryphal literature thrived in the 13th and 14th centuries, often concentrating on issues that were avoided in the official religious works. There were also many fortune-telling books that predicted events based on astrology and dreams. Some of them included political elements, such as a prophecy that an earthquake that occurred at night would confuse people, who would then treat the emperor with disdain. The authorities condemned apocryphal literature and included such titles in an index of banned books. Nonetheless, apocryphs spread in Russia; the 16th century Russian noble Andrey Kurbsky called them "Bulgarian fables".

See also

Pontic littoral's city and flags of Second Bulgarian Empire (Bulgarian rulers Shishman) on vexilographic maps by the end of the 13th – 17th centuries

Notes

 a: Unlike the Byzantine Empire, the taxes in the First Bulgarian Empire were paid in kind.
 b: Peter I (r. 927–969) was the first Bulgarian ruler who received official recognition of his imperial title by the Byzantines and enjoyed great popularity during the Byzantine rule. Two other rebel leaders were proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria under the name Peter before Theodore.
 c: The Roman and the Latin Empires were referred to by Western Europeans as "Romania". The term "Franks" (in Bulgarian фръзи, in Greek frankoi) was used by the medieval Bulgarians and Byzantines to describe the whole Catholic population of Europe and the subjects of the Latin Empire.
 d: There is no information about territorial changes in the negotiations but many historians suggest that the Serbs occupied Niš at that time.
 e: When there was no legitimate heir of the deceased monarch it was customary that the nobility would elect an emperor among themselves. Constantine Tikh (r. 1257–1277), George I Terter (r. 1280–1292) and Michael Shishman (r. 1323–1330) were all elected emperors by the nobility.

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  • Радушев (Radushev), Ангел (Angel); Жеков (Zhekov), Господин (Gospodin) (1999). Каталог на българските средновековни монети IX–XV век (Catalogue of the Medieval Bulgarian coins IX–XV centuries) (in Bulgarian). Агато (Anubis). ISBN 954-8761-45-9.
  • Фоменко (Fomenko), Игорь Константинович (Igor K.) (2011). "Карты-реконструкции = Reconstruction maps". Образ мира на старинных портоланах. Причерноморье. Конец XIII – XVII [The Image of the World on Old Portolans. The Black Sea Littoral from the End of the 13th – the 17th Centuries] (in Russian). Moscow: "Индрик" (Indrik). ISBN 978-5-91674-145-2.
  • Цончева (Tsoncheva), М. (M.) (1974). Търновска книжовна школа. 1371–1971 (Tarnovo Literary School. 1371–1971) (in Bulgarian). София (Sofia).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

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