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{{Short description|History of Georgia's Autonomous Republic of Adjara}}{{More citations needed|date=March 2024}}
{{History of Georgia (country)}} {{History of Georgia (country)}}
The article refers to the history of ]'s ]. The '''history of Adjara''', a region in the South Caucasus, stretches from its initial ] settlement through to its present day status as ]'s ].


== Ancient and medieval Adjara == == Ancient and medieval eras ==
] at the Gonio museum.]] ] at the ] museum.]]
] ]
Archeologists say the territory has been inhabited since the ]. Occupied by an ancient ] tribe of ]s from ancient times, the territory of Adjara was a province of ] from the 7th to 3rd centuries ]. Part of the area formed a county (saeristavo) within the ] in the late 4th century BC. Colonized by ] merchants in the 5th and 4th century BC, the coastal Adjara later came under ] rule. ] (Bathys) (the present day ]) and ] (Apsaruntos) (modern ]) were the key cities and fortresses at that time. Archeological excavations have revealed ruins of a rich ancient town at ] near the present day town of ]. In the 2nd century AD, ] was an important military base for ] legions. ] was famous for its theatre. Archaeological evidence indicates the territory of Adjara has been inhabited since the ].{{Cn|date=April 2024}} The region was first occupied by the Moskhs, an old Georgian tribe, and subsequently became a province of ] from the 7th to 3rd centuries BC. During the late 4th century BC, a portion of the area formed a county (]) within the ]. In the 5th and 4th centuries BC, ] merchants colonized the coastal regions of Adjara, which later fell under ] rule. Bathus (present-day ]) and ] (modern ]) were prominent fortress-cities during this period. Archaeological excavations at ], near the present-day town of ], have revealed the ruins of a prosperous ancient village.


The early ] in Adjara was linked with names of ], Saint ] and ]. ] is said to be buried in the ] fortress near ]. During the 2nd century AD, Bathus served as a significant military base for Roman legions, while Apsaros gained renown for its theatre. The early ] in Adjara is associated with figures such as ], Saint ], and ]. ] is believed to be buried in the ] fortress near Batumi. In the 2nd century AD, Adjara became part of the ]. During this period, the fortress of ] played an important role in the ] between the ] and ] from 542 to 562 AD.{{Cn|date=April 2024}}
In the 2nd century AD, Adjara was incorporated in the ]. The province's key fortress of ] served as a battlefield during the ] between the ] and ] in 542–562.


⚫ In the 9th century, the region was divided between two Georgian states, ] and the ]. During the 11th century, Adjara became a part of the unified ] and was governed by rulers of ]. The region faced turmoil during the 11th century due to invasions by the Seljuks and later in the 13th century by the Mongols. After the ] and subsequent internal conflicts, Adjara changed hands multiple times until it became a part of the Principality of ] in 1535. The ] established one of their ] trading "factories" at the fortified town of Gonio during this time.
In the 9th century, the region was divided between two ] states, the ] and the ].


⚫ == Ottoman rule ==
⚫ In the 11th century, Adjara became a part of the unified ] and was governed by rulers of ]. The region was ravaged by ] in the 11th century and by ] in the 13th century. After the ] and subsequent internal wars, Adjara was passed from hands to hands until it became a part of the Principality of ] in 1535. The ] established one of their ] trading "factories" at the fortified town of ] at that time.

⚫ == Adjara under Ottoman rule ==
] in 1855.|left]] ] in 1855.|left]]
In 1547, the province of Adjara fell to ] raids, leading to the capture of Batumi. In 1564, Prince ] of ] managed to liberate the region, but Turkish rule was reestablished in 1582. Control changed hands again in 1609 when Prince Mamia Gurieli took control of Batumi, but by 1614, Guria lost the province to the Ottomans. Subsequently, the area was divided into two ''sanjaks'' under the authority of the ] of ]. Many Adjarians sought refuge elsewhere in Georgia, while those who remained were converted to ].
⚫ In 1547, the ] raided the province and captured ]. Liberated by Prince ] of ] in 1564, the region fell under the Turkish rule again in 1582. In 1609, Prince Mamia Gurieli temporarily relieved Batumi. However, ] lost the province to the Ottomans in 1614. The area was divided into two sandjaks and submitted to the ] of ]. Part of Adjarians fled to other Georgian regions. Those who remained were converted to ]. The Ottomans had little direct control of Adjara and local Muslim Georgian nobility, such as the ], ruled as semi-autonomous ] until the Ottoman government's centralizing reforms '']'' eliminated them and brought the region more closely within the empire by 1850. There was opposition to the ''tanzimat'' efforts from both nobility, who resented the loss of their privileges, and peasantry, who opposed newly allocated taxes and conscription in the regular Ottoman army. In the 1840s, the Porte had to commit significant forces from the neighboring ]s to suppress a rebellion staged by Kor-Hussein Bey (Khimshiashvili). Three times did Kor-Hussein Bey rise in revolt, in 1840, 1844, and 1846; each time he was defeated and eventually sent as a prisoner to ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yilmaz|first1=Özgür|title=Tanzimat Döneminde İsyancı Bir Ayan Profili: Acaralı Kör Hüseyin Bey Hadisesi|journal=Belleten|date=August 2014|volume=78|issue=282|pages=611–657|trans-title=A Rebel Ayan Profile in the Tanzimat Period: The Incident of Kör Hüseyin Bey of Adjara|language=Turkish}}</ref> Among the rebels was Hasan Hasbi, sent, in 1845, by the Caucasian ] in Adjara to recruit volunteers for his struggle against the Russian encroachment in ]. After the suppression of the Adjarian uprising, he managed to escape.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gammer|first1=Moshe|title=Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnia and Daghestan|date=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=0714650994|pages=250–251}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Badem|first1=Candan|title=The Ottoman Crimean War (1853–1856)|date=2010|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-18205-5|pages=149–150}}</ref>


Direct Ottoman control over Adjara was limited, and local Muslim Georgian nobility, including the ], ruled as semi-autonomous ]. However, this arrangement changed with the centralizing '']'' reforms implemented by the Ottoman government around 1850. These reforms sought to bring Adjara more closely under the empire's influence and were opposed by both the nobility and the peasantry. The nobility resented the loss of their privileges, while the peasantry opposed newly imposed taxes and conscription into the Ottoman army.{{Cn|date=April 2024}}
⚫ During the ] of 1853-1856 and ], thousands of Adjarians were recruited in the Ottoman army.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sanikidze |first1=George |date=2018-04-01 |title=Muslim Communities of Georgia: Old Problems and New Challenges |url=https://www.scienceopen.com/hosted-document?doi=10.13169/islastudj.4.2.0247 |journal=Islamophobia Studies Journal |publisher=Pluto Journals |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=249 |doi=10.13169/islastudj.4.issue-2 |access-date=2022-09-05}}</ref> During the war of 1877–1878, Batum was defended by a 25,000-strong Ottoman army under Dervish-Pasha as well as the Ottoman warships cruising off the Black Sea coastline. The Russians dispatched the Kobuleti Detachment of 12,000 troops commanded by Lt.-Gen. Oklobzhio, but he made little progress throughout the conflict. He was able to dislodge the Turks from the Mukha-Estate heights on April 14, 1877, and entrenched there until November 15. The only attempt to advance made by Oklobzhio was thwarted by the Ottomans at the clashes at Tsikhisdziri and the Sameba hills on June 11–12. In November, the fall of Kars and retreat of Dervish Pasha's troops to Batum combined with the advance of General Komarov's Ardahan Detachment to Batum enabled Oklobzhio to reclaim the positions, but the attack on Tsikhisdziri on January 18, 1878, was a failure. Then the ceasefire followed, ending the Russian operations against Batum.


⚫ Throughout the 1840s, the ] had to deploy significant forces from neighboring ]s to quell a rebellion led by Kor-Hussein Bey (Khimshiashvili). Three revolts were defeated in 1840, 1844, and 1846, and Kor-Hussein was eventually sent as a prisoner to ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yilmaz|first1=Özgür|title=Tanzimat Döneminde İsyancı Bir Ayan Profili: Acaralı Kör Hüseyin Bey Hadisesi|journal=Belleten|date=August 2014|volume=78|issue=282|pages=611–657|doi=10.37879/belleten.2014.611 |trans-title=A Rebel Ayan Profile in the Tanzimat Period: The Incident of Kör Hüseyin Bey of Adjara|language=Turkish}}</ref> Among the rebels was Hasan Hasbi, who had been dispatched by the Caucasian ] in Adjara in 1845. He sought volunteers to support the struggle against Russian encroachment in ], and after the suppression of the Adjarian uprising, Hasbi managed to escape.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gammer|first1=Moshe|title=Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnia and Daghestan|date=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=0714650994|pages=250–251}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Badem|first1=Candan|title=The Ottoman Crimean War (1853–1856)|date=2010|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-18205-9|pages=149–150}}</ref>
⚫ == Adjara under Russian rule ==

⚫ During the ] of 1853-1856 and the ], thousands of Adjarians were conscripted into the Ottoman army.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sanikidze |first1=George |date=2018-04-01 |title=Muslim Communities of Georgia: Old Problems and New Challenges |url=https://www.scienceopen.com/hosted-document?doi=10.13169/islastudj.4.2.0247 |journal=Islamophobia Studies Journal |publisher=Pluto Journals |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=249 |doi=10.13169/islastudj.4.2.0247 |access-date=2022-09-05}}</ref> Batum was a significant part of the Ottoman Empire's defensive network during the latter war, hosting both a 25,000-strong army under Dervish-Pasha and warships patrolling the Black Sea coastline. The Russians attempted to dislodge the Turks from the ] heights on April 14, 1877, but the Kobuleti Detachment under Lieutenant-General Oklobzhio made little progress. The Ottomans thwarted Oklobzhio's attempted advances at the clashes at ] and the Sameba hills on June 11–12. However, in November, when Dervish Pasha's troops retreated to Batum after the fall of ], and General Komarov's Ardahan Detachment advanced to Batum, Oklobzhio managed to reclaim some positions. The subsequent attack on Tsikhisdziri on January 18, 1878, was unsuccessful, and the ceasefire thereafter ended Russian operations against Batum.

⚫ == Russian rule ==
] ]
Adjara, known as Adjaristan during Turkish rule, was ceded to the ] on March 3, 1878. The transition brought significant changes to the region, particularly concerning Islam and loyalty to the imperial power.{{Which|date=April 2024}}
The ] ceded Adjara (called Adjaristan under Turkish rule) to the ] on March 3, 1878. Under the Russian oppression of Islam, thousands of Muslims fled the region in search of refuge in ] in an immigration process called Muhajiroba (see ]). Financed by the Ottomans, an insurgent organization known as The Avengers attempted to kill Russian officers and officials, along with Adjarians who collaborated with the imperial presence. Nevertheless, many Adjarians were loyal to ] as they found the best opportunity to be reunited with other ].


In the face of Russian oppression of Islam, a considerable number of Muslims sought refuge in ] through a process of immigration known as ]. The Ottoman Empire financially supported an insurgent organization called The Avengers which made attempts on the lives of Russian officers, officials, and Adjarian collaborators.
⚫ The ] of 1878 declared the regional capital of ] a ] or free port. The city became an important seaport and industrial city towards the end of the 1880s. At the turn of the 20th century, Batumi was linked to the oil fields of ] by one of the earliest pipelines (]) and a railway, and it became one of the most important ports in the world. On June 22, 1892 the "Markus", a huge tanker ship departed ] for ], ], becoming the first oil tanker to transit the ].


⚫ Following the ] of 1878, Batum, the regional capital, was declared a ]. This declaration propelled Batumi's growth as an important seaport and industrial city by the late 1880s. The city's significance increased further at the turn of the 20th century when it became connected to the oil fields of ] through the ] and a railway. The importance of Batumi was symbolized by the departure of the tanker ship "Markus" on June 22, 1892, which set sail from ] to ], ] and became the first oil tanker to traverse the ].
The region (called Batum Oblast under the Russian rule) witnessed numerous strikes and bloody crackdowns during the ]-1907.


During Russian rule, the region also witnessed social unrest during the ], with numerous strikes and violent crackdowns in Batum Oblast.
⚫ During ], Adjarian muhajirs (emigrants to Turkey) formed a division within the Turkish army. Upon the evacuation of the Russian forces following the ceasefire of December 18, 1917, on 14 April 1918 the Ottoman 37th Caucasian Division entered Batum.


⚫ During ], Adjarian Muhajir, who had emigrated to Turkey, formed a division within the Turkish army. The Ottoman 37th Caucasian Division entered Batum following the evacuation of Russian forces on April 14, 1918.
⚫ In 1915, in the course of the ongoing ], the Russian administration began a process of deportation of “refractory” Russian-subject Muslims from the Batumi region to interior Russian provinces, drawing protests from Georgian intellectuals. Soon thereafter, Georgian deputies in the Russian Duma declared that the Muslims being deported were not Turks but Adjarians, who were “Georgian despite their Muslim religion, and therefore loyal Russians.” As a result of their protests, ] presided over an investigation which ended its voluminous report with the conclusion that there Adjarians were not hostile to the Russian regime. It blamed Cossacks and Armenians for the allegations of Adjarian disloyalty and accused them of instigating violent confrontations with local Muslims. In the end, ] was persuaded to meet with Adjarian leaders, and he even awarded them for their loyalty. It was not until after the ], on January 26, 1918, that the investigation of alleged Adjarian treason was closed.<ref>Eric Lohr (2003), ''Nationalizing the Russian Empire: the Campaign against Enemy Aliens during World War I'', pp. 151-2, 220-1. ], {{ISBN|0-674-01041-8}}.</ref>


⚫ In 1915, as part of the ongoing conflict with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian administration began deporting "refractory" Russian-subject Muslims from the Batumi region to interior Russian provinces. Georgian intellectuals expressed their protests, asserting that those deported were not Turks but Adjarians who were "Georgian despite their Muslim religion, and therefore loyal Russians."{{Cn|date=April 2024}} A thorough investigation, presided over by ], supported the Adjarians' loyalty, attributing allegations of disloyalty to Cossacks and Armenians who instigated confrontations with local Muslims.{{Cn|date=April 2024}} Eventually, ] met with Adjarian leaders and rewarded them for their loyalty. The investigation concluded on January 26, 1918, following the ].<ref>Eric Lohr (2003), ''Nationalizing the Russian Empire: the Campaign against Enemy Aliens during World War I'', pp. 151-2, 220-1. ], {{ISBN|0-674-01041-8}}.</ref>
⚫ == British Occupation ==

⚫ == British occupation ==
], leader of the Adjarian Mejlis]] ], leader of the Adjarian Mejlis]]
On January 12, 1919 the ] expeditionary forces landed at ] to replace the ] troops. The Council for Batum Region — chaired by the Russian ] P. Maslov — was created to govern Adjara as a provisional authority from 21 December 1918 to 28 April 1919. The Committee of the Liberation of Muslim Georgia, led by ] and ], had repeatedly spoken of the establishment of autonomy on religious principles within the borders of Georgia. To work towards this, on September 13, 1919 a prototype parliament, the Mejlis, was convened in Batum. Though Abashidze's faction strongly advocated the union with Georgia, the drive towards autonomy was strong, even among the pro-Georgian Adjarians. Another, less numerous group known as Seday Mileth (in Turkish: "voice of people") propagated pro- and pan-Turkish ideas. On January 12, 1919, ] expeditionary forces initiated their landing at ] to replace the Turkish troops. Subsequently, the Council for Batum Region, under the leadership of the Russian ] P. Maslov, was established as a provisional governing authority for Adjara from December 21, 1918, until April 28, 1919.


During this period, the Committee of the Liberation of Muslim Georgia, led by ] and ], actively advocated for the establishment of autonomy based on religious principles within Georgia's borders. A prototype parliament, known as the Mejlis, was convened to pursue this objective in Batum on September 13, 1919. Some pro-Georgian Adjarians supported autonomy despite the strong advocacy for union with Georgia by Abashidze's faction.{{Whose|date=April 2024}} A smaller group called ''Seday Mileth'' (Turkish for "voice of people") also propagated pro-Turkish and pan-Turkish ideas.
⚫ On August 15, 1919, the withdrawal of British Troops began from the Caucasus. The divisional headquarters at Batum left for Constantinople, handing over to the military governor of Batum—]. On March 4, 1920, Cooke-Collis as appointed to command the Inter-Allied Force at Batum. This force was withdrawn from Batum by July 14, 1920.


⚫ The withdrawal of British troops from the Caucasus began on August 15, 1919. The divisional headquarters at Batum then transferred authority to Major General ], the military governor of the region.{{Cn|date=April 2024}} Subsequently, on March 4, 1920, Cooke-Collis assumed command of the Inter-Allied Force stationed at Batum. However, by July 14, 1920, this force was withdrawn entirely from the city.{{Cn|date=April 2024}}
⚫ == Adjara in Democratic Republic of Georgia ==

⚫ The British administration ceded the region to the ] on 20 July 1920. ] and Russian agents organized a series of sabotages and terrorist acts.<ref name=experiment>{{citeer boek | last1=Lee |first1=Eric |date=2017 |title=The Experiment: Georgia's Forgotten Revolution 1918-1921 |url=https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/book/the-experiment-georgia-s-forgotten-revolution-19181921/ |edition=1st |pages=135 |publisher=ZED Books |location=] |isbn=978-1-78699-092-1 | access-date=2022-09-05 }}</ref> The Georgian government granted Adjara an autonomous status within the republic's first constitution, which was first drafted in July 1920 and formally adopted on 21 February 1921 during the ].<ref name=constitution>{{cite book |title=The 1921 Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Georgia Looking Back After 90 Years |publisher=Constitutional Court of Georgia / Noe Jordania Institute |location=] |date=2012|pages=13,27,50| url=https://www.constcourt.ge/pdf/5f1fff7365947.pdf/1921%20Constitution%20of%20the%20Democratic%20Republic%20of%20Georgia%20-%20eng-fr.pdf |access-date=2022-09-05}}</ref>
⚫ == Democratic Republic of Georgia ==
⚫ The British administration ceded the region to the ] on July 20, 1920. Subsequently, ] and Russian agents orchestrated sabotage and terrorist acts.<ref name=experiment>{{cite book|access-date=2022-09-05|date=2017|edition=1st|first1=Eric|isbn=978-1-78699-092-1|last1=Lee|location=]|pages=135|publisher=ZED Books|title=The Experiment: Georgia's Forgotten Revolution 1918-1921|url=https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/book/the-experiment-georgia-s-forgotten-revolution-19181921/}}</ref> In response, the Georgian government granted Adjara an autonomous status in the republic's inaugural constitution, initially drafted in July 1920 and formally adopted during the ] on February 21, 1921.<ref name=constitution>{{cite book |title=The 1921 Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Georgia Looking Back After 90 Years |publisher=Constitutional Court of Georgia / Noe Jordania Institute |location=] |date=2012|pages=13,27,50| url=https://www.constcourt.ge/pdf/5f1fff7365947.pdf/1921%20Constitution%20of%20the%20Democratic%20Republic%20of%20Georgia%20-%20eng-fr.pdf |access-date=2022-09-05}}</ref>
{{Blockquote {{Blockquote
|text=''Abkhazeti (district of Soukhoum), Georgian Muslim district (district of Batumi), and Zakatala (district of Zakatala), which are integral parts of the Georgian Republic, shall enjoy the autonomy in the administration of their affairs.'' |text=''Abkhazeti (district of Stockholm), Georgian Muslim district (district of Batumi), and Zakatala (district of Zakatala), which are integral parts of the Georgian Republic, shall enjoy the autonomy in the administration of their affairs.''
|source=Article 107, Georgian constitution |source=Article 107, Georgian constitution
}} }}
During the Soviet invasion of Georgia, ] forces occupied ] on March 11, 1921 and held the city until they were expelled by the Georgian troops under General ] on March 18, 1921. The Soviet rule in ] was declared the next day. Turkey recognized the region as a part of ] by the Soviet-Turkish ] of 16 March 1921. Amidst the Soviet invasion of Georgia, Turkish forces occupied ] on March 11, 1921, but were expelled seven days later by Georgian troops under the leadership of General ]. On March 19, Soviet rule was declared in Batumi. The territorial status of Adjara was acknowledged as part of the ] in the Soviet-Turkish ], signed on March 16, 1921.


== Adjara under Soviet rule == == Soviet rule ==
{{Main|Adjarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic}} {{Main|Adjarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic}}
The Soviet government declared the ] on 16 July 1921. Turkey ceded the region to Bolsheviks on the condition that it would be granted autonomy, for the sake of the Muslims among Adjara's mixed population. The second condition stipulated in the ] was the unhindered access for Turkey to the port of ].<ref name=treatykars>{{Cite web| url=https://www.groong.org/treaties/kars.html | title=English transcription of the Treaty of Kars|publisher=Armenian News Network / Groong |access-date=2022-09-05}}</ref> The ] was declared by the Soviet government on July 16, 1921, following the region's cession from Turkey to the ]. The cession was conditioned on the promise of autonomy for the region and particularly for Adjarian Muslims. The Treaty of Kars also stipulated that Turkey would have unobstructed access to the port of ].<ref name=treatykars>{{Cite web| url=https://www.groong.org/treaties/kars.html | title=English transcription of the Treaty of Kars|publisher=Armenian News Network / Groong |access-date=2022-09-05}}</ref>
{{Blockquote {{Blockquote
|text=''That Turkey be assured free transit through the port of Batum for commodities and all materials destined for, or originating in, Turkey, without customs duties and charges, and with the right for Turkey to utilize the port of Batum without special charges.'' |text=''That Turkey be assured free transit through the port of Batum for commodities and all materials destined for, or originating in Turkey, without customs duties and charges, and with the right for Turkey to utilize the port of Batum without special charges.''
|source=Article VI.2, Treaty of Kars |source=Article VI.2, Treaty of Kars
}} }}
The autonomous republic was the only Soviet autonomy based on religion rather than ethnicity,<ref name=coene>{{cite book |last1=Coene |first1=Frederik |date=2010 |title=The Caucasus, an introduction |edition=1st |publisher=Routledge |location=] |pages=162 |isbn=9780415666831| url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Caucasus---An-Introduction/Coene/p/book/9780415666831 |access-date=2022-09-05}}</ref> but that was of little value as ], like ], was repressed under ]'s rule. In April 1929, the Muslim villagers of mountainous Adjara rose in arms against compulsory ] and religious persecution. The Soviet troops were invoked and the revolt was quickly put down. Thousands of Adjarians were deported from the republic.<ref>Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977), The Cambridge history of Islam, p. 639. ], {{ISBN|0-521-29136-4}}</ref> The Adjarian ASSR was the only Soviet autonomy established on religious rather than ethnic grounds.<ref name=coene>{{cite book |last1=Coene |first1=Frederik |date=2010 |title=The Caucasus, an introduction |edition=1st |publisher=Routledge |location=] |pages=162 |isbn=9780415666831| url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Caucasus---An-Introduction/Coene/p/book/9780415666831 |access-date=2022-09-05}}</ref> However, this distinction held little significance, as both ] and ] faced repression during ]'s rule. In April 1929, Muslim villagers in the mountainous regions of Adjara launched an armed uprising against compulsory ] and religious persecution. Soviet troops were deployed in response and swiftly quelled the revolt. Thousands of Adjarians were deported from the republic in the revolt's wake.<ref>Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977), The Cambridge history of Islam, p. 639. ], {{ISBN|0-521-29136-4}}</ref>


== Post-Soviet era ==
== Adjara under Aslan Abashidze ==
] ]
] ] from 2000 to 2004.]]
After the Georgian independence, ] became the chairman of Ajaria's parliament. Abashidze was initially appointed by the Georgian president in 1991.<ref>{{cite web|title=Adjara Celebrates Abashidze's Departure |date=6 May 2004 |url=https://civil.ge/archives/105875}}</ref> However, he later took advantage of the ] in the country and turned Adjara into the personal fiefdom, although it remained relatively prosperous enclave in an otherwise rather chaotic country.<ref name="Abash">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3683629.stm|title=Aslan Abashidze|publisher=BBC|language=English|date=4 May 2004|access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> Under Abashidze's control, Adjara experienced relative political stability and economic growth during the ].{{Cn|date=April 2024}} Despite significant foreign investments and numerous financial projects, most Adjarians remained impoverished. On October 24, 1997, Adjara became a full member of the ] (AER).


⚫ Relations between the central and regional authorities were strained, with the Adjarian leadership often refusing to pay taxes to the central budget. Abashidze took control of customs, Batumi seaport, and other strategic assets while establishing his semi-official armed units and ultimately controlling the Batumi-based 25th Brigade of Georgia's ]. The central government criticized Abashidze for his pro-Russian stance and considered the Batumi-based Russian military unit as a base of power for the Adjarian leader.{{Cn|date=April 2024}}
Following Georgia's first democratic parliamentary and presidential elections, President ] appointed ] as the head of the Adjara's Supreme Council on March 15, 1991 hoping that the latter would assist in canceling the autonomous status of the region. However, when Gamsakhurdia proposed to abolish Adjarian autonomy, Abashidze called Adjarians, especially the Muslims of the region, to rise in protest. Tensions with central Georgian authorities ensued. On 22 April 1991, pro-Abashidze protesters stormed administrative buildings in the central Batumi demanding the immediate resignation of several officials. The protests were effectively used by Abashidze to establish his own powerbase in the region. Gamsakhurdia facing serious internal problems already in Tbilisi preferred not to interfere in the Adjarian events. In turmoil, ], Abashidze's deputy chairman of the Supreme Soviet and the highest placed supporter of Gamsakhurdia in Adjara, was killed in highly controversial circumstances. In Batumi's version, Imnadze was shot by guards while attempting to burst in Abashidze's office with a gun in his hands. The Tbilisi-controlled media simply printed unspecified obituaries. However, many claims have been made that Imnadze was killed by Abashidze himself during the argument at office.


During his rule from 1992 to 2003, Georgia's ex-president ] made several attempts to reconcile with Abashidze, resulting in a compromise where Adjara obtained a more autonomous status, Abashidze agreed not to run for the presidency of Georgia, and Shevardnadze allowed Abashidze to retain power in Adjara.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004 |title=Assessment for Adzhars in Georgia |url=http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=37202 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060619192247/http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=37202|archive-date= 2006-06-19|access-date=April 14, 2024 |website=Minorities at Risk Project}}</ref>
Under Abashidze's tight control of the autonomy, Adjara enjoyed relative political stability and economic prosperity during the ]. However, the majority of the Adjarians remained poor despite much foreign investment and numerous financial projects. On 24 October 1997, Adjara became a full member of the ] (AER).


Abashidze's party, the ], initially cooperated with Shevardnadze's ruling ] party in the 1995 parliamentary elections but later broke ties after the polls.
⚫ The relations between the central and regional authorities were strained. Adjarian leadership often refused to pay taxes to the central budget. Abashidze took control over the customs, Batumi seaport and other strategic objects. He created his own semi-official armed units and had full control over the Batumi-based 25th Brigade of Georgia's Defense Ministry.


⚫ Abashidze's Revival Party had thirty members in the Georgian parliament{{When|date=April 2024}} and was seen as a moderate opposition to the central government in Tbilisi. Following the ] and the subsequent ] in ], Abashidze referred to the ouster of Shevardnadze in November 2003 as "a violent coup d'état".{{Cn|date=April 2024}}
The central government claimed Batumi-based ]n military unit was a powerbase for the Adjarian strongman and criticized Abashidze for his pro-Russian orientation.

Georgia's ex-president ] visited the region several times during his rule in 1992–2003 to attempt reconciliation with Abashidze. They reached a kind of compromise in which Adjara obtained larger autonomous status, Abashidze agreed not to run for the presidency of Georgia, and Shevardnadze allowed Abashidze to maintain power in Adjara. The latter's party, the ], cooperated with Shevardnadze's ruling ] party in the 1995 parliamentary elections, but broke with Shevardnadze after the elections.

⚫ Abashidze's Revival Party had thirty members in the Georgian parliament, and was seen as a moderate opposition to the central government in Tbilisi. After the rigged elections of 2003 and the ensuing "]" in ], Abashidze described the November 2003 ouster of Shevardnadze as "a violent coup d'état".


== Adjara crisis == == Adjara crisis ==
] ]
{{Main|2004 Adjara crisis}} {{Main|2004 Adjara crisis}}{{More citations needed section|date=April 2024}}
On November 23, 2003, following Shevardnadze's fall, Aslan Abashidze declared a state of emergency in Adjara. Despite this, Adjara participated in the Georgian presidential elections held on January 4, 2004, which were won by ]. Subsequently, President Saakashvili demanded that the Adjarian leader adhere to the Georgian constitution and initiate a disarmament process.

In May 2004, tensions escalated as Abashidze claimed that Georgian forces were preparing to invade the region. In response, his forces demolished bridges that connected Adjara with the rest of Georgia. On May 4, local oppositional demonstrations were dispersed under a state of emergency, but this action only served as a catalyst for even larger demonstrations later in the day. Thousands of people across Adjara gathered in Batumi to demand Abashidze's resignation.


On November 23, 2003, immediately after Shevardnadze's fall, Aslan Abashidze declared a state of emergency in the region. Nevertheless, Adjara took part in the Georgian presidential elections of January 4, 2004, won by ]. Saakashvili ordered the Adjarian leader to comply with the Georgian constitution and start disarming. In May 2004, Abashidze claimed that Georgian forces were preparing to invade. His forces blew up bridges connecting the region with the rest of Georgia. The state of emergency was followed by the dispersal of local oppositional demonstrations as of May 4. This proved a catalyst for even larger demonstrations later on the same day. Tens of thousands from all Adjara headed for Batumi to demand Abashidze's resignation. On May 6, Abashidze's position became untenable when local protesters took control over the central Batumi and Georgian Special Forces entered the region and started to disarm pro-Abashidze groups. After overnight talks with ]n Foreign Affairs Minister ], Mr. Abashidze resigned and departed the country for ]. On May 6, the situation reached a turning point when local protesters took control of central Batumi, and Georgian Special Forces entered the region to disarm pro-Abashidze groups. Concurrently, negotiations were held with Russian Foreign Affairs Minister ]. As a result of overnight talks, Mr. Abashidze ultimately resigned from his position and departed the country for ].


== Post-Abashidze era == == Post-Abashidze era ==
] ]
] ]
On May 7, 2004 direct presidential rule was imposed in Adjara and 20-member Interim Council was set up to run the Autonomous Republic before the fresh local elections could be held in the region. ] was appointed as the Chairman of the Interim Council. On May 7, 2004, direct Georgian presidential rule was implemented in Adjara, establishing a 20-member Interim Council responsible for governing the Autonomous Republic until fresh local elections could be conducted. ] was designated as the Chairman of the Interim Council.


Regional parliamentary elections were held on June 20. Victorious Adjara, party backed by President Saakashvili won 28 seats out of 30 in the local legislative body. The 2 other seats were occupied by Saakashvili's former allies, the Republican Party. There were allegations of vote-rigging from the Republicans, after they won less than 15 per cent of the vote. On July 20, Adjarian Supreme Council approved ] as the Chairman of the Autonomous Republic's Government. Regional parliamentary elections were held on June 20, in which the party "Victorious Adjara", endorsed by President Saakashvili, secured 28 out of 30 seats in the local legislative body. The remaining two seats were occupied by the Republican Party, former allies of Saakashvili. Allegations of vote-rigging were raised by the Republicans, who obtained less than 15 percent of the vote. On July 20, the Adjarian Supreme Council confirmed Varshalomidze's appointment as the Chairman of the Autonomous Republic's government.


The regional policy of central and local governments focuses on attracting foreign investments in the region. A largescale campaign of privatization has been launched for this purpose. The regional policy pursued by both central and local governments centered around encouraging foreign investments in the area, which prompted an extensive privatization campaign initiation.{{Specify|date=April 2024}}


Russian military presence was another challenge in the region. Russia promised to withdraw its base at the 1999 ] ] summit, and the protracted process of the ensuing negotiations remained a source of great tension with Georgia until the base was finally withdrawn by 2008. The Russian military presence in Batumi also posed a significant regional security threat. Following Russia's promise to withdraw from its base at the 1999 ] ] summit, prolonged Russia-Georgia negotiations on the subject remained a significant source of tension until the base was eventually vacated in 2008.{{Cn|date=April 2024}}


== See also == == See also ==

Latest revision as of 01:30, 12 June 2024

History of Georgia's Autonomous Republic of Adjara
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The history of Adjara, a region in the South Caucasus, stretches from its initial Stone Age settlement through to its present day status as Georgia's Autonomous Republic of Adjara.

Ancient and medieval eras

Artifacts of the Colchian culture at the Gonio museum.
A medieval arch bridge at Makhuntseti.

Archaeological evidence indicates the territory of Adjara has been inhabited since the Neolithic Age. The region was first occupied by the Moskhs, an old Georgian tribe, and subsequently became a province of Colchis from the 7th to 3rd centuries BC. During the late 4th century BC, a portion of the area formed a county (saeristavo) within the Kingdom of Iberia. In the 5th and 4th centuries BC, Greek merchants colonized the coastal regions of Adjara, which later fell under Roman rule. Bathus (present-day Batumi) and Apsaros (modern Gonio) were prominent fortress-cities during this period. Archaeological excavations at Pichvnari, near the present-day town of Kobuleti, have revealed the ruins of a prosperous ancient village.

During the 2nd century AD, Bathus served as a significant military base for Roman legions, while Apsaros gained renown for its theatre. The early Christian era in Adjara is associated with figures such as Saint Andrew, Saint Simon the Canaanite, and Matata. Saint Matthias is believed to be buried in the Gonio fortress near Batumi. In the 2nd century AD, Adjara became part of the kingdom of Lazica. During this period, the fortress of Petra (Tsikhisdziri) played an important role in the Lazic War between the Byzantines and Persians from 542 to 562 AD.

In the 9th century, the region was divided between two Georgian states, Tao-Klarjeti and the Kingdom of Abkhazia. During the 11th century, Adjara became a part of the unified Georgian Kingdom and was governed by rulers of Samtskhe-Saatabago. The region faced turmoil during the 11th century due to invasions by the Seljuks and later in the 13th century by the Mongols. After the disintegration of the Georgian monarchy and subsequent internal conflicts, Adjara changed hands multiple times until it became a part of the Principality of Guria in 1535. The Genoese established one of their Black Sea trading "factories" at the fortified town of Gonio during this time.

Ottoman rule

An Ottoman military camp in Batum during the Crimean War in 1855.

In 1547, the province of Adjara fell to Ottoman raids, leading to the capture of Batumi. In 1564, Prince Rostom Gurieli of Guria managed to liberate the region, but Turkish rule was reestablished in 1582. Control changed hands again in 1609 when Prince Mamia Gurieli took control of Batumi, but by 1614, Guria lost the province to the Ottomans. Subsequently, the area was divided into two sanjaks under the authority of the Pasha of Childir (Akhaltsikhe). Many Adjarians sought refuge elsewhere in Georgia, while those who remained were converted to Islam.

Direct Ottoman control over Adjara was limited, and local Muslim Georgian nobility, including the Khimshiashvili, ruled as semi-autonomous beys. However, this arrangement changed with the centralizing tanzimat reforms implemented by the Ottoman government around 1850. These reforms sought to bring Adjara more closely under the empire's influence and were opposed by both the nobility and the peasantry. The nobility resented the loss of their privileges, while the peasantry opposed newly imposed taxes and conscription into the Ottoman army.

Throughout the 1840s, the Ottoman Porte had to deploy significant forces from neighboring pashaliks to quell a rebellion led by Kor-Hussein Bey (Khimshiashvili). Three revolts were defeated in 1840, 1844, and 1846, and Kor-Hussein was eventually sent as a prisoner to Constantinople. Among the rebels was Hasan Hasbi, who had been dispatched by the Caucasian Imam Shamil in Adjara in 1845. He sought volunteers to support the struggle against Russian encroachment in Dagestan, and after the suppression of the Adjarian uprising, Hasbi managed to escape.

During the Crimean War of 1853-1856 and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, thousands of Adjarians were conscripted into the Ottoman army. Batum was a significant part of the Ottoman Empire's defensive network during the latter war, hosting both a 25,000-strong army under Dervish-Pasha and warships patrolling the Black Sea coastline. The Russians attempted to dislodge the Turks from the Mukhaestate heights on April 14, 1877, but the Kobuleti Detachment under Lieutenant-General Oklobzhio made little progress. The Ottomans thwarted Oklobzhio's attempted advances at the clashes at Tsikhisdziri and the Sameba hills on June 11–12. However, in November, when Dervish Pasha's troops retreated to Batum after the fall of Kars, and General Komarov's Ardahan Detachment advanced to Batum, Oklobzhio managed to reclaim some positions. The subsequent attack on Tsikhisdziri on January 18, 1878, was unsuccessful, and the ceasefire thereafter ended Russian operations against Batum.

Russian rule

Adjarian peasants in the 1900s.

Adjara, known as Adjaristan during Turkish rule, was ceded to the Russian Empire on March 3, 1878. The transition brought significant changes to the region, particularly concerning Islam and loyalty to the imperial power.

In the face of Russian oppression of Islam, a considerable number of Muslims sought refuge in Turkey through a process of immigration known as Muhajiroba. The Ottoman Empire financially supported an insurgent organization called The Avengers which made attempts on the lives of Russian officers, officials, and Adjarian collaborators.

Following the Berlin Congress of 1878, Batum, the regional capital, was declared a free port. This declaration propelled Batumi's growth as an important seaport and industrial city by the late 1880s. The city's significance increased further at the turn of the 20th century when it became connected to the oil fields of Baku through the Baku-Batumi pipeline and a railway. The importance of Batumi was symbolized by the departure of the tanker ship "Markus" on June 22, 1892, which set sail from Batumi to Bangkok, Thailand and became the first oil tanker to traverse the Suez Canal.

During Russian rule, the region also witnessed social unrest during the Russian Revolution of 1905, with numerous strikes and violent crackdowns in Batum Oblast.

During World War I, Adjarian Muhajir, who had emigrated to Turkey, formed a division within the Turkish army. The Ottoman 37th Caucasian Division entered Batum following the evacuation of Russian forces on April 14, 1918.

In 1915, as part of the ongoing conflict with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian administration began deporting "refractory" Russian-subject Muslims from the Batumi region to interior Russian provinces. Georgian intellectuals expressed their protests, asserting that those deported were not Turks but Adjarians who were "Georgian despite their Muslim religion, and therefore loyal Russians." A thorough investigation, presided over by Grand Duke Georgi Mikhailovich, supported the Adjarians' loyalty, attributing allegations of disloyalty to Cossacks and Armenians who instigated confrontations with local Muslims. Eventually, Grand Duke Nikolay Nikolaevich met with Adjarian leaders and rewarded them for their loyalty. The investigation concluded on January 26, 1918, following the Russian Revolution of 1917.

British occupation

Memed Abashidze, leader of the Adjarian Mejlis

On January 12, 1919, British expeditionary forces initiated their landing at Batumi to replace the Turkish troops. Subsequently, the Council for Batum Region, under the leadership of the Russian cadet P. Maslov, was established as a provisional governing authority for Adjara from December 21, 1918, until April 28, 1919.

During this period, the Committee of the Liberation of Muslim Georgia, led by Memed Abashidze and Haidar Abashidze, actively advocated for the establishment of autonomy based on religious principles within Georgia's borders. A prototype parliament, known as the Mejlis, was convened to pursue this objective in Batum on September 13, 1919. Some pro-Georgian Adjarians supported autonomy despite the strong advocacy for union with Georgia by Abashidze's faction. A smaller group called Seday Mileth (Turkish for "voice of people") also propagated pro-Turkish and pan-Turkish ideas.

The withdrawal of British troops from the Caucasus began on August 15, 1919. The divisional headquarters at Batum then transferred authority to Major General W. J. N. Cooke-Collis, the military governor of the region. Subsequently, on March 4, 1920, Cooke-Collis assumed command of the Inter-Allied Force stationed at Batum. However, by July 14, 1920, this force was withdrawn entirely from the city.

Democratic Republic of Georgia

The British administration ceded the region to the Democratic Republic of Georgia on July 20, 1920. Subsequently, Bolsheviks and Russian agents orchestrated sabotage and terrorist acts. In response, the Georgian government granted Adjara an autonomous status in the republic's inaugural constitution, initially drafted in July 1920 and formally adopted during the Red Army invasion of Georgia on February 21, 1921.

Abkhazeti (district of Stockholm), Georgian Muslim district (district of Batumi), and Zakatala (district of Zakatala), which are integral parts of the Georgian Republic, shall enjoy the autonomy in the administration of their affairs.

— Article 107, Georgian constitution

Amidst the Soviet invasion of Georgia, Turkish forces occupied Batumi on March 11, 1921, but were expelled seven days later by Georgian troops under the leadership of General Giorgi Mazniashvili. On March 19, Soviet rule was declared in Batumi. The territorial status of Adjara was acknowledged as part of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic in the Soviet-Turkish Treaty of Kars, signed on March 16, 1921.

Soviet rule

Main article: Adjarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic

The Adjarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was declared by the Soviet government on July 16, 1921, following the region's cession from Turkey to the Bolsheviks. The cession was conditioned on the promise of autonomy for the region and particularly for Adjarian Muslims. The Treaty of Kars also stipulated that Turkey would have unobstructed access to the port of Batumi.

That Turkey be assured free transit through the port of Batum for commodities and all materials destined for, or originating in Turkey, without customs duties and charges, and with the right for Turkey to utilize the port of Batum without special charges.

— Article VI.2, Treaty of Kars

The Adjarian ASSR was the only Soviet autonomy established on religious rather than ethnic grounds. However, this distinction held little significance, as both Islam and Christianity faced repression during Stalin's rule. In April 1929, Muslim villagers in the mountainous regions of Adjara launched an armed uprising against compulsory collectivization and religious persecution. Soviet troops were deployed in response and swiftly quelled the revolt. Thousands of Adjarians were deported from the republic in the revolt's wake.

Post-Soviet era

Aslan Abasidze ruled Adjara from 1991 until his overthrow in 2004.
Flag of Adjara from 2000 to 2004.

After the Georgian independence, Aslan Abashidze became the chairman of Ajaria's parliament. Abashidze was initially appointed by the Georgian president in 1991. However, he later took advantage of the civil war in the country and turned Adjara into the personal fiefdom, although it remained relatively prosperous enclave in an otherwise rather chaotic country. Under Abashidze's control, Adjara experienced relative political stability and economic growth during the Georgian Civil War. Despite significant foreign investments and numerous financial projects, most Adjarians remained impoverished. On October 24, 1997, Adjara became a full member of the Assembly of European Regions (AER).

Relations between the central and regional authorities were strained, with the Adjarian leadership often refusing to pay taxes to the central budget. Abashidze took control of customs, Batumi seaport, and other strategic assets while establishing his semi-official armed units and ultimately controlling the Batumi-based 25th Brigade of Georgia's Defense Ministry. The central government criticized Abashidze for his pro-Russian stance and considered the Batumi-based Russian military unit as a base of power for the Adjarian leader.

During his rule from 1992 to 2003, Georgia's ex-president Eduard Shevardnadze made several attempts to reconcile with Abashidze, resulting in a compromise where Adjara obtained a more autonomous status, Abashidze agreed not to run for the presidency of Georgia, and Shevardnadze allowed Abashidze to retain power in Adjara.

Abashidze's party, the Union of Democratic Revival of Georgia, initially cooperated with Shevardnadze's ruling Union of Citizens of Georgia party in the 1995 parliamentary elections but later broke ties after the polls.

Abashidze's Revival Party had thirty members in the Georgian parliament and was seen as a moderate opposition to the central government in Tbilisi. Following the fraudulent elections of 2003 and the subsequent Rose Revolution in Georgia, Abashidze referred to the ouster of Shevardnadze in November 2003 as "a violent coup d'état".

Adjara crisis

The Choloki bridge destroyed by Abashidze's forces in May 2004.
Main article: 2004 Adjara crisis
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

On November 23, 2003, following Shevardnadze's fall, Aslan Abashidze declared a state of emergency in Adjara. Despite this, Adjara participated in the Georgian presidential elections held on January 4, 2004, which were won by Mikheil Saakashvili. Subsequently, President Saakashvili demanded that the Adjarian leader adhere to the Georgian constitution and initiate a disarmament process.

In May 2004, tensions escalated as Abashidze claimed that Georgian forces were preparing to invade the region. In response, his forces demolished bridges that connected Adjara with the rest of Georgia. On May 4, local oppositional demonstrations were dispersed under a state of emergency, but this action only served as a catalyst for even larger demonstrations later in the day. Thousands of people across Adjara gathered in Batumi to demand Abashidze's resignation.

On May 6, the situation reached a turning point when local protesters took control of central Batumi, and Georgian Special Forces entered the region to disarm pro-Abashidze groups. Concurrently, negotiations were held with Russian Foreign Affairs Minister Igor Ivanov. As a result of overnight talks, Mr. Abashidze ultimately resigned from his position and departed the country for Moscow.

Post-Abashidze era

Flag of Adjara (adopted in 2004)
Batumi in 2012

On May 7, 2004, direct Georgian presidential rule was implemented in Adjara, establishing a 20-member Interim Council responsible for governing the Autonomous Republic until fresh local elections could be conducted. Levan Varshalomidze was designated as the Chairman of the Interim Council.

Regional parliamentary elections were held on June 20, in which the party "Victorious Adjara", endorsed by President Saakashvili, secured 28 out of 30 seats in the local legislative body. The remaining two seats were occupied by the Republican Party, former allies of Saakashvili. Allegations of vote-rigging were raised by the Republicans, who obtained less than 15 percent of the vote. On July 20, the Adjarian Supreme Council confirmed Varshalomidze's appointment as the Chairman of the Autonomous Republic's government.

The regional policy pursued by both central and local governments centered around encouraging foreign investments in the area, which prompted an extensive privatization campaign initiation.

The Russian military presence in Batumi also posed a significant regional security threat. Following Russia's promise to withdraw from its base at the 1999 Istanbul OSCE summit, prolonged Russia-Georgia negotiations on the subject remained a significant source of tension until the base was eventually vacated in 2008.

See also

References

  1. Yilmaz, Özgür (August 2014). "Tanzimat Döneminde İsyancı Bir Ayan Profili: Acaralı Kör Hüseyin Bey Hadisesi" [A Rebel Ayan Profile in the Tanzimat Period: The Incident of Kör Hüseyin Bey of Adjara]. Belleten (in Turkish). 78 (282): 611–657. doi:10.37879/belleten.2014.611.
  2. Gammer, Moshe (2003). Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnia and Daghestan. Taylor & Francis. pp. 250–251. ISBN 0714650994.
  3. Badem, Candan (2010). The Ottoman Crimean War (1853–1856). Brill. pp. 149–150. ISBN 978-90-04-18205-9.
  4. Sanikidze, George (2018-04-01). "Muslim Communities of Georgia: Old Problems and New Challenges". Islamophobia Studies Journal. 4 (2). Pluto Journals: 249. doi:10.13169/islastudj.4.2.0247. Retrieved 2022-09-05.
  5. Eric Lohr (2003), Nationalizing the Russian Empire: the Campaign against Enemy Aliens during World War I, pp. 151-2, 220-1. Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-01041-8.
  6. Lee, Eric (2017). The Experiment: Georgia's Forgotten Revolution 1918-1921 (1st ed.). London: ZED Books. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-78699-092-1. Retrieved 2022-09-05.
  7. The 1921 Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Georgia Looking Back After 90 Years (PDF). Batumi: Constitutional Court of Georgia / Noe Jordania Institute. 2012. pp. 13, 27, 50. Retrieved 2022-09-05.
  8. "English transcription of the Treaty of Kars". Armenian News Network / Groong. Retrieved 2022-09-05.
  9. Coene, Frederik (2010). The Caucasus, an introduction (1st ed.). London: Routledge. p. 162. ISBN 9780415666831. Retrieved 2022-09-05.
  10. Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977), The Cambridge history of Islam, p. 639. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29136-4
  11. "Adjara Celebrates Abashidze's Departure". 6 May 2004.
  12. "Aslan Abashidze". BBC. 4 May 2004. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  13. "Assessment for Adzhars in Georgia". Minorities at Risk Project. 2004. Archived from the original on 2006-06-19. Retrieved April 14, 2024.

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